Arthritis, Joint Inflammation
Arthritis refers to inflammation of a joint. The inflammation may cause pain, swelling, and stiffness.
What is going on in the body?
The joint inflammation of arthritis can occur for many reasons. Often the lining of the joint, the synovium, becomes inflamed. It reacts by making extra synovial fluid. This causes the joint to become swollen. The smooth white surface of the joint, the hyaline cartilage, can become thin, worn, and rough. Any joint in the body can be affected by some form of arthritis.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
There are many types of arthritis, with a host of different causes, such as:
# ankylosing spondylitis, which affects the spine and other joints
# arthritis caused by mechanical problems, such as a bone fracture or dislocation
# gout, which is caused by an accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joint
# infectious arthritis, which is caused by an infection such as Lyme disease or a gonococcal infection
# osteoarthritis, a degenerative process that is also called wear-and-tear arthritis
# pseudogout, which is caused by an accumulation of calcium pyrophosphate crystals in the joint
# psoriatic arthritis, which develops in some people who have a chronic skin condition known as psoriasis
# reactive arthritis, which may develop after an infection of the urinary tract, bowel, or other organs
# rheumatoid arthritis, an autoimmune disorder in which the body makes antibodies to its own tissues
Some of the risk factors for arthritis are as follows:
# aging changes in the bones and joints
# bodywide infections that affect the joints
# diabetes
# genetic or hereditary tendency to arthritis
# immunodeficiency disorders, such as HIV
# injury to the joints
# menopause, which increases a woman's risk for osteoarthritis
# overweight or obesity
# smoking, which doubles a woman's risk for rheumatoid arthritis
Knee Pain
Knee Pain, Pain in the Knee, Arthralgia of the Knee
The knee is a joint where the thigh bone, or femur, and shin bone, or tibia, meet. Knee pain refers to any pain or discomfort in this area of the body.
What is going on in the body?
Pain in the knee can occur for many reasons. It can be mild or severe, and involve one or both knees. Most cases of knee pain do not pose a serious threat to a person's health, but a few are serious.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
There are many possible causes of knee pain, including:
# trauma or injury
# overuse of the knee
# arthritis
# infections in or around the knee, such as septic arthritis
# disease or infection throughout the body, which may produce generalized joint pain. Examples include sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and flu.
# gout or pseudogout, which are disorders that can deposit crystals into the joint space
# autoimmune disorders, conditions in which a person produces antibodies against his or her own body for unknown reasons. Autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus can cause knee pain.
# Baker's cyst, a small abnormal sac that may develop behind the knee
# Osgood-Schlatter disease, a condition that usually occurs in teenage boys
# deep venous thrombosis, which is a blood clot in the leg
# a tumor or cancer affecting the bone
The knee is a joint where the thigh bone, or femur, and shin bone, or tibia, meet. Knee pain refers to any pain or discomfort in this area of the body.
What is going on in the body?
Pain in the knee can occur for many reasons. It can be mild or severe, and involve one or both knees. Most cases of knee pain do not pose a serious threat to a person's health, but a few are serious.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
There are many possible causes of knee pain, including:
# trauma or injury
# overuse of the knee
# arthritis
# infections in or around the knee, such as septic arthritis
# disease or infection throughout the body, which may produce generalized joint pain. Examples include sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and flu.
# gout or pseudogout, which are disorders that can deposit crystals into the joint space
# autoimmune disorders, conditions in which a person produces antibodies against his or her own body for unknown reasons. Autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis or systemic lupus erythematosus can cause knee pain.
# Baker's cyst, a small abnormal sac that may develop behind the knee
# Osgood-Schlatter disease, a condition that usually occurs in teenage boys
# deep venous thrombosis, which is a blood clot in the leg
# a tumor or cancer affecting the bone
Arthralgia, Pain in the Joints
Arthralgia, Pain in the Joints
Joint pain is a common symptom with many possible causes.
What is going on in the body?
A joint is the place where two bones come together. For example, the knee joint is the place where the thigh bone and shin bone meet. Most people have one or more sore joints at some point in their lives. The joints of the arms and legs are most commonly affected.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
There are many possible causes of joint pain. The causes can be divided into categories:
# wear-and-tear, such as from overuse, injury, or osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, or joint inflammation.
# conditions that affect metabolism, such as gout and pseudogout. These conditions result from materials being deposited into the joints.
# infections of the joint, sometimes called septic arthritis. Infections usually spread to the joint from other areas of the body. Gonorrhea and syphilis, two sexually transmitted diseases, can cause joint pain. Lyme disease, an infection that results from a tick bite, and other infections can also cause arthritis.
# autoimmune disorders, in which a person's body produces antibodies against its own tissues. These disorders include rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
# reactive arthritis, which means joint pain and inflammation caused by infections in other areas of the body. This type of joint pain can result from infectious diarrhea or the sexually transmitted disease chlamydia.
# bone diseases, such as Paget's disease, which causes inflamed bones and bone tumors or cancer near joints.
# medications, such as penicillin or procainamide
# diseases, such as the flu
Other causes are also possible. In some cases, no cause can be found
Joint pain is a common symptom with many possible causes.
What is going on in the body?
A joint is the place where two bones come together. For example, the knee joint is the place where the thigh bone and shin bone meet. Most people have one or more sore joints at some point in their lives. The joints of the arms and legs are most commonly affected.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
There are many possible causes of joint pain. The causes can be divided into categories:
# wear-and-tear, such as from overuse, injury, or osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, or joint inflammation.
# conditions that affect metabolism, such as gout and pseudogout. These conditions result from materials being deposited into the joints.
# infections of the joint, sometimes called septic arthritis. Infections usually spread to the joint from other areas of the body. Gonorrhea and syphilis, two sexually transmitted diseases, can cause joint pain. Lyme disease, an infection that results from a tick bite, and other infections can also cause arthritis.
# autoimmune disorders, in which a person's body produces antibodies against its own tissues. These disorders include rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus.
# reactive arthritis, which means joint pain and inflammation caused by infections in other areas of the body. This type of joint pain can result from infectious diarrhea or the sexually transmitted disease chlamydia.
# bone diseases, such as Paget's disease, which causes inflamed bones and bone tumors or cancer near joints.
# medications, such as penicillin or procainamide
# diseases, such as the flu
Other causes are also possible. In some cases, no cause can be found
Atherosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis, Hardening of the Arteries, Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis refers to fatty deposits formed under the inner lining of the blood vessels. The walls of the vessels become thick and less elastic. The thickened areas are called plaque.
What is going on in the body?
Atherosclerosis occurs when fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste products, calcium, and other materials build up on the inside lining of the arteries. The buildup is more likely to be in parts of the artery that have been injured. It usually occurs where the artery bends or branches. Once plaque builds up, it may cause the cells in the artery lining to make chemicals that cause more plaque buildup.
Two problems can result from the plaque.
# First, the blood vessel can become narrow, preventing blood flow to the area served by the artery. For example, if an artery to the heart becomes 80% to 90% blocked, a person can develop chest pain.
# Second, the plaque can rupture and send a blood clot streaming through the artery. A blood clot that goes to other parts of the body is called an embolus. The embolus can be deposited in a smaller area of the artery or in another artery, completely cutting off the blood supply. This blockage can cause a heart attack, stroke, pulmonary embolus, or other serious medical problem.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
There are several factors that increase a person's risk of developing atherosclerosis, such as:
# cigarette smoking and secondhand smoke
# diabetes
# high blood cholesterol, especially a high level of LDL, the bad carrier for cholesterol
# high blood pressure
# high levels of triglycerides in the blood
# increased age
# lack of exercise
# male gender
# obesity
Atherosclerosis refers to fatty deposits formed under the inner lining of the blood vessels. The walls of the vessels become thick and less elastic. The thickened areas are called plaque.
What is going on in the body?
Atherosclerosis occurs when fatty substances, cholesterol, cellular waste products, calcium, and other materials build up on the inside lining of the arteries. The buildup is more likely to be in parts of the artery that have been injured. It usually occurs where the artery bends or branches. Once plaque builds up, it may cause the cells in the artery lining to make chemicals that cause more plaque buildup.
Two problems can result from the plaque.
# First, the blood vessel can become narrow, preventing blood flow to the area served by the artery. For example, if an artery to the heart becomes 80% to 90% blocked, a person can develop chest pain.
# Second, the plaque can rupture and send a blood clot streaming through the artery. A blood clot that goes to other parts of the body is called an embolus. The embolus can be deposited in a smaller area of the artery or in another artery, completely cutting off the blood supply. This blockage can cause a heart attack, stroke, pulmonary embolus, or other serious medical problem.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
There are several factors that increase a person's risk of developing atherosclerosis, such as:
# cigarette smoking and secondhand smoke
# diabetes
# high blood cholesterol, especially a high level of LDL, the bad carrier for cholesterol
# high blood pressure
# high levels of triglycerides in the blood
# increased age
# lack of exercise
# male gender
# obesity
Arterial Blood Sample
Arterial Blood Sample
An arterial blood sample is a small amount of blood collected from an artery. The blood is then used for testing in the laboratory.
Who is a candidate for the test?
Arterial blood samples are most often used for an arterial blood gas, or ABG, test. ABGs are a series of blood measurements that are ordered as a single test. This test is primarily used to check lung function and acid levels in the body.
An arterial blood sample may also be done to obtain blood for a CHEM-20 or CHEM-7. These tests look at a number of chemicals in the blood serum. Blood cultures for aerobic or anaerobic organisms may also be done on an arterial blood sample. These tests look for bacteria and other organisms in the blood.
How is the test performed?
Arterial blood samples are drawn from an artery. Common sites include the wrist, elbow, or groin. The area is cleaned with an antiseptic. A local anesthetic is injected to numb the area. A sharp, hollow needle is inserted into the artery. Blood is collected using a syringe treated with heparin. Heparin is a blood thinner that keeps the sample from clotting in the syringe. Pressure is applied to the collection site until bleeding stops
An arterial blood sample is a small amount of blood collected from an artery. The blood is then used for testing in the laboratory.
Who is a candidate for the test?
Arterial blood samples are most often used for an arterial blood gas, or ABG, test. ABGs are a series of blood measurements that are ordered as a single test. This test is primarily used to check lung function and acid levels in the body.
An arterial blood sample may also be done to obtain blood for a CHEM-20 or CHEM-7. These tests look at a number of chemicals in the blood serum. Blood cultures for aerobic or anaerobic organisms may also be done on an arterial blood sample. These tests look for bacteria and other organisms in the blood.
How is the test performed?
Arterial blood samples are drawn from an artery. Common sites include the wrist, elbow, or groin. The area is cleaned with an antiseptic. A local anesthetic is injected to numb the area. A sharp, hollow needle is inserted into the artery. Blood is collected using a syringe treated with heparin. Heparin is a blood thinner that keeps the sample from clotting in the syringe. Pressure is applied to the collection site until bleeding stops
Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
Thoracic Outlet Syndrome, True Neurogenic Thoracic Outlet Syndrome, Disputed Thoracic Outlet Syndrome, Arterial Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
Thoracic outlet syndrome includes those disorders that result in compression of nerves or blood vessels supplying the arms.
What is going on in the body?
The thoracic outlet is the area of the body between the collarbone and the rib cage. Veins, nerves, and arteries come through this opening. When the blood vessels or nerves are compressed or squeezed, the pressure causes the symptoms of thoracic outlet syndrome.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
Causes of thoracic outlet may include:
# injury to the area of the collarbone or upper ribs
# spinal problems, such as a herniated disk that may compress the nerves
# bony protrusions on the spinal column near the thoracic outlet
# an extra rib or other abnormality present at birth
# pregnancy
# repetitive stress injury from activities that may compress the nerves, arteries, or veins
Sometimes a cause cannot be identified
Thoracic outlet syndrome includes those disorders that result in compression of nerves or blood vessels supplying the arms.
What is going on in the body?
The thoracic outlet is the area of the body between the collarbone and the rib cage. Veins, nerves, and arteries come through this opening. When the blood vessels or nerves are compressed or squeezed, the pressure causes the symptoms of thoracic outlet syndrome.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
Causes of thoracic outlet may include:
# injury to the area of the collarbone or upper ribs
# spinal problems, such as a herniated disk that may compress the nerves
# bony protrusions on the spinal column near the thoracic outlet
# an extra rib or other abnormality present at birth
# pregnancy
# repetitive stress injury from activities that may compress the nerves, arteries, or veins
Sometimes a cause cannot be identified
Arterial Blood Gases
Arterial Blood Gases, ABG, Arterial Blood GAS
Arterial blood gases, called ABGs, are a series of blood measurements that are ordered as a single test. This test is used mainly to check lung function and acid levels in the body.
Who is a candidate for the test?
Any time there is a question about breathing problems, oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, or acid levels in the body, this test can be helpful. Examples include:
# people with shortness of breath due to lung problems
# people with rapid breathing due to heart or blood conditions
# people who are unconscious
# people who are suspected of having too much or too little acid in the body, such as someone with kidney failure
# people on artificial breathing machines called ventilators. ABGs are done regularly to assure that the machines are set correctly.
How is the test performed?
A blood sample from an artery is needed to do this test. In most cases, an artery on the palm side of the wrist is used to get the blood. Sometimes, an artery in the groin or other area may be used. The skin over the artery is cleaned first. Next, a small needle is inserted through the skin and into the artery. The needle is usually hooked up to a syringe. Blood flows into the syringe once the needle is put into the artery. Pressure is applied over the area after the blood is collected to prevent bleeding. The blood is then sent to the lab for analysis
Arterial blood gases, called ABGs, are a series of blood measurements that are ordered as a single test. This test is used mainly to check lung function and acid levels in the body.
Who is a candidate for the test?
Any time there is a question about breathing problems, oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange, or acid levels in the body, this test can be helpful. Examples include:
# people with shortness of breath due to lung problems
# people with rapid breathing due to heart or blood conditions
# people who are unconscious
# people who are suspected of having too much or too little acid in the body, such as someone with kidney failure
# people on artificial breathing machines called ventilators. ABGs are done regularly to assure that the machines are set correctly.
How is the test performed?
A blood sample from an artery is needed to do this test. In most cases, an artery on the palm side of the wrist is used to get the blood. Sometimes, an artery in the groin or other area may be used. The skin over the artery is cleaned first. Next, a small needle is inserted through the skin and into the artery. The needle is usually hooked up to a syringe. Blood flows into the syringe once the needle is put into the artery. Pressure is applied over the area after the blood is collected to prevent bleeding. The blood is then sent to the lab for analysis
In Vitro Fertilization
In Vitro Fertilization, Assisted Reproductive Technology, IVF, ART
In vitro fertilization, also called IVF, is a method used to enable couples who are unable to conceive naturally, to have a child. IVF refers to the combining of egg and sperm outside the woman's body. Once the egg is fertilized, the embryo is put back into the woman's body for full development.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
IVF is used for women who have:
# blocked or absent fallopian tubes
# endometriosis, a condition in which tissue that normally lines the uterus is found elsewhere in the body
# other medical reasons that prevent the egg and sperm from joining naturally within the woman's body
How is the procedure performed?
Fertility medications or hormonal preparations are used to help stimulate ovulation and/or support the development of the uterine lining. These medications are taken daily, at home, usually by injection.
Normally, the ovaries take turns releasing one egg each menstrual cycle. With IVF, fertility medications suppress normal hormone function and reduce the risk of eggs being released from the ovary before they can be retrieved. Later in the cycle, more medications are given to cause the ovaries to produce many mature eggs at the same time. Vaginal ultrasound and blood testing every 2 to 3 days can monitor the body's response to these medications, and the maturity of the eggs. When enough eggs have matured, another type of medication is given to stimulate their release from the ovary. These mature eggs are removed 32 to 36 hours later.
The egg retrieval process is done in the doctor's office or special procedure room. The woman is sedated to keep her comfortable. An ultrasound device is inserted through the vagina to see the follicles in the ovaries that house the mature eggs. The doctor then inserts a needle through the vaginal wall and withdraws the eggs. This procedure takes 15 to 60 minutes, and usually only causes mild pelvic discomfort.
Once the eggs have been withdrawn, they are incubated for several hours before sperm cells are added. When the sperm cells are added to the eggs, they are again incubated for about 12 to 18 more hours to allow for fertilization. After fertilization occurs, the embryos are checked for quality and viability. Not all embryos will develop well enough to be transferred to the womb.
Embryos are usually transferred 3 to 5 days after egg retrieval. This transfer occurs in the doctor's office or procedure room. No anesthesia is used. It is much like a regular pelvic exam. The embryos are inserted into the uterus using a soft, flexible catheter attached to a syringe. Usually 2 to 5 embryos are inserted. This will depend on the quality of the embryos and the age of the woman. Extra embryos, if any, can be frozen for future use
In vitro fertilization, also called IVF, is a method used to enable couples who are unable to conceive naturally, to have a child. IVF refers to the combining of egg and sperm outside the woman's body. Once the egg is fertilized, the embryo is put back into the woman's body for full development.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
IVF is used for women who have:
# blocked or absent fallopian tubes
# endometriosis, a condition in which tissue that normally lines the uterus is found elsewhere in the body
# other medical reasons that prevent the egg and sperm from joining naturally within the woman's body
How is the procedure performed?
Fertility medications or hormonal preparations are used to help stimulate ovulation and/or support the development of the uterine lining. These medications are taken daily, at home, usually by injection.
Normally, the ovaries take turns releasing one egg each menstrual cycle. With IVF, fertility medications suppress normal hormone function and reduce the risk of eggs being released from the ovary before they can be retrieved. Later in the cycle, more medications are given to cause the ovaries to produce many mature eggs at the same time. Vaginal ultrasound and blood testing every 2 to 3 days can monitor the body's response to these medications, and the maturity of the eggs. When enough eggs have matured, another type of medication is given to stimulate their release from the ovary. These mature eggs are removed 32 to 36 hours later.
The egg retrieval process is done in the doctor's office or special procedure room. The woman is sedated to keep her comfortable. An ultrasound device is inserted through the vagina to see the follicles in the ovaries that house the mature eggs. The doctor then inserts a needle through the vaginal wall and withdraws the eggs. This procedure takes 15 to 60 minutes, and usually only causes mild pelvic discomfort.
Once the eggs have been withdrawn, they are incubated for several hours before sperm cells are added. When the sperm cells are added to the eggs, they are again incubated for about 12 to 18 more hours to allow for fertilization. After fertilization occurs, the embryos are checked for quality and viability. Not all embryos will develop well enough to be transferred to the womb.
Embryos are usually transferred 3 to 5 days after egg retrieval. This transfer occurs in the doctor's office or procedure room. No anesthesia is used. It is much like a regular pelvic exam. The embryos are inserted into the uterus using a soft, flexible catheter attached to a syringe. Usually 2 to 5 embryos are inserted. This will depend on the quality of the embryos and the age of the woman. Extra embryos, if any, can be frozen for future use
Arrhythmias
Arrhythmias , Irregular Heartbeat
An arrhythmia of the heart is an abnormality of the rhythm or rate of the heartbeat. The arrhythmia is caused by a disturbance of the normal electrical activity within the heart.
What is going on in the body?
Arrhythmias can be divided into 2 main groups: tachycardias and bradycardias. Tachycardias cause a rapid heartbeat, with over 100 beats per minute. Bradycardias cause a slow heartbeat, with less than 60 beats per minute. The rhythm of the heart may be regular during an arrhythmia. In other words, each beat of the atria, or upper chambers of the heart, is followed by one beat of the ventricles, or lower chambers of the heart. The beat may also be irregular and may begin in an abnormal area of the heart.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Most arrhythmias are caused by heart disease, including:
# coronary artery disease, a condition in which atherosclerosis, or narrowing of the arteries, decreases the blood flow to the heart
# disease of the heart valves, including infections known as endocarditis
# disease of the tissue that surrounds the heart, such as bacterial pericarditis
# congestive heart failure, a disorder in which a weakened heart fails to pump enough blood to body organs
Arrhythmias may also be caused by:
# disease in the electrical system of the heart
# chemicals such as adrenaline, alcohol, or caffeine
# certain prescription medications, including tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline and nortriptyline
# certain over-the-counter medications, such as pseudoephedrine
Arrhythmias may or may not be life threatening. In general, arrhythmias that begin in the upper part of the heart are less dangerous than those that begin in the lower chambers
An arrhythmia of the heart is an abnormality of the rhythm or rate of the heartbeat. The arrhythmia is caused by a disturbance of the normal electrical activity within the heart.
What is going on in the body?
Arrhythmias can be divided into 2 main groups: tachycardias and bradycardias. Tachycardias cause a rapid heartbeat, with over 100 beats per minute. Bradycardias cause a slow heartbeat, with less than 60 beats per minute. The rhythm of the heart may be regular during an arrhythmia. In other words, each beat of the atria, or upper chambers of the heart, is followed by one beat of the ventricles, or lower chambers of the heart. The beat may also be irregular and may begin in an abnormal area of the heart.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Most arrhythmias are caused by heart disease, including:
# coronary artery disease, a condition in which atherosclerosis, or narrowing of the arteries, decreases the blood flow to the heart
# disease of the heart valves, including infections known as endocarditis
# disease of the tissue that surrounds the heart, such as bacterial pericarditis
# congestive heart failure, a disorder in which a weakened heart fails to pump enough blood to body organs
Arrhythmias may also be caused by:
# disease in the electrical system of the heart
# chemicals such as adrenaline, alcohol, or caffeine
# certain prescription medications, including tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline and nortriptyline
# certain over-the-counter medications, such as pseudoephedrine
Arrhythmias may or may not be life threatening. In general, arrhythmias that begin in the upper part of the heart are less dangerous than those that begin in the lower chambers
Palpitations
Palpitations, Irregular Heartbeat, Arrhythmia
The term palpitations describes an unusual awareness of the heartbeat.
What is going on in the body?
Ordinarily, a person is not aware of the beating of his or her heart. Under certain circumstances, such as when scared or under stress, a person may become aware of the heartbeat. This awareness of the heartbeat is known as palpitations. Often, the heart may seem to beat faster or harder than usual. In some cases, palpitations may occur due to an irregular heartbeat, also called an arrhythmia.
Palpitations happen to almost everyone at some time in their life. Usually they're nothing to worry about. In some people, the perception of having palpitations is caused by emotion or stress rather than an actual extra beat. However, palpitations may signal a serious condition, especially if they are caused by an arrhythmia.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Common causes of palpitations include:
# anxiety
# fever
# medication such as thyroid hormone medication, decongestants, asthma medications, and certain heart medications
# substances such as caffeine and appetite suppressants
# cocaine use
# hyperthyroidism, which is an overactive thyroid gland
# exercise
# anemia, which is a low red blood cell count
# defects in the electrical system of the heart
# abnormalities of the heart muscle, known as cardiomyopathy
# abnormalities in the heart valves
Risk of palpitations range from no risk to death. The determining factor is the nature of the palpitations, how long the runs are, and the location of the palpitations in the heart
The term palpitations describes an unusual awareness of the heartbeat.
What is going on in the body?
Ordinarily, a person is not aware of the beating of his or her heart. Under certain circumstances, such as when scared or under stress, a person may become aware of the heartbeat. This awareness of the heartbeat is known as palpitations. Often, the heart may seem to beat faster or harder than usual. In some cases, palpitations may occur due to an irregular heartbeat, also called an arrhythmia.
Palpitations happen to almost everyone at some time in their life. Usually they're nothing to worry about. In some people, the perception of having palpitations is caused by emotion or stress rather than an actual extra beat. However, palpitations may signal a serious condition, especially if they are caused by an arrhythmia.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Common causes of palpitations include:
# anxiety
# fever
# medication such as thyroid hormone medication, decongestants, asthma medications, and certain heart medications
# substances such as caffeine and appetite suppressants
# cocaine use
# hyperthyroidism, which is an overactive thyroid gland
# exercise
# anemia, which is a low red blood cell count
# defects in the electrical system of the heart
# abnormalities of the heart muscle, known as cardiomyopathy
# abnormalities in the heart valves
Risk of palpitations range from no risk to death. The determining factor is the nature of the palpitations, how long the runs are, and the location of the palpitations in the heart
Arch Pain
Plantar Fasciitis, Foot Arch Pain, Arch Pain
Arch pain is caused by an inflammation of the plantar arch, or fascia. The condition is also called plantar fasciitis. The plantar arch is a thick membrane that covers and supports the muscles of the sole of the foot.
What is going on in the body?
The plantar arch starts at the heel bone and runs to the base of the toes. Arch pain occurs when this membrane becomes worn down due to constant strain. This causes pain in the arch of the foot. A person will often feel pain in the heel as well.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The causes and risk of arch pain include:
# problems with physical training. This can include rapidly increasing mileage when running, running on steep hills, or wearing improper footwear.
# abnormal anatomy and position and of the foot
# certain types of arthritis
# obesity
Arch pain is caused by an inflammation of the plantar arch, or fascia. The condition is also called plantar fasciitis. The plantar arch is a thick membrane that covers and supports the muscles of the sole of the foot.
What is going on in the body?
The plantar arch starts at the heel bone and runs to the base of the toes. Arch pain occurs when this membrane becomes worn down due to constant strain. This causes pain in the arch of the foot. A person will often feel pain in the heel as well.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The causes and risk of arch pain include:
# problems with physical training. This can include rapidly increasing mileage when running, running on steep hills, or wearing improper footwear.
# abnormal anatomy and position and of the foot
# certain types of arthritis
# obesity
Partial Thromboplastin Time
PTT, Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time, APTT,
The partial thromboplastin time (PTT) test helps measure the ability of the blood to clot normally. It is very similar to the prothrombin time (PT) test. These two tests are often ordered together.
At least 12 different proteins are involved in clotting. The PTT and PT test each measure the function of some of these proteins.
Who is a candidate for the test?
This test may be done:
# when a person has a bleeding problem
# to monitor a person who is taking blood-thinning medicine
# before surgery to make sure a person will not bleed too much during the operation
How is the test performed?
A blood sample is usually taken from a vein on the forearm or hand. The skin over the vein is first cleaned with an antiseptic. Next, a strong rubber tube, or tourniquet, is wrapped around the upper arm. This restricts blood flow through the veins in the lower arm and causes them to enlarge.
A small needle is gently inserted into a vein and the tourniquet is removed. Blood flows from the vein through the needle. It is collected in a syringe or vial. After the needle is withdrawn, the puncture site is covered to prevent bleeding. The blood sample is sent to a lab for testing
The partial thromboplastin time (PTT) test helps measure the ability of the blood to clot normally. It is very similar to the prothrombin time (PT) test. These two tests are often ordered together.
At least 12 different proteins are involved in clotting. The PTT and PT test each measure the function of some of these proteins.
Who is a candidate for the test?
This test may be done:
# when a person has a bleeding problem
# to monitor a person who is taking blood-thinning medicine
# before surgery to make sure a person will not bleed too much during the operation
How is the test performed?
A blood sample is usually taken from a vein on the forearm or hand. The skin over the vein is first cleaned with an antiseptic. Next, a strong rubber tube, or tourniquet, is wrapped around the upper arm. This restricts blood flow through the veins in the lower arm and causes them to enlarge.
A small needle is gently inserted into a vein and the tourniquet is removed. Blood flows from the vein through the needle. It is collected in a syringe or vial. After the needle is withdrawn, the puncture site is covered to prevent bleeding. The blood sample is sent to a lab for testing
Appropriate Diet for Age
Appropriate Diet for Age, Diet for Age
Nutrition needs and developmental skills change as a child grows. An age-appropriate diet is one that provides the nutrients a child needs to grow and to develop. It also includes foods that a child likes and can eat easily.
The Food Guide Pyramid from the US Department of Agriculture shows the kinds and amounts of foods that are needed to provide adequate nutrition for children. A healthy diet includes grains, fruit, vegetables, meat and meat substitutes, and dairy products. Some foods are hard or unsafe for children to eat because their chewing and swallowing skills are not yet fully developed.
What is the information for this topic?
Infants
From birth until four to six months of age, infants rely on the sucking ability with which they are born. They obtain all their nutrition either from a bottle or from breast-feeding. Newborn infants feed every two to four hours and eat up to eight times a day or more. Breast milk provides all the nutrition a newborn infant needs. Man-made infant formulas are designed to be as much like breast milk as they can be.
Between four and six months of age, an infant begins to take larger amounts of breast milk or formula at one time. This means that they may not want to feed as often. Their digestive systems have developed more fully, so they can eat new foods. An infant who has doubled in weight since birth may be ready to begin solid foods. The baby should also be able to sit up and have good head support.
Eating from a spoon is a new skill a baby must learn. Until about the age of 12 months, an infant can manage only small amounts of food with a spoon or fingers. This eating method does not provide a major source of nutrition. An infant continues to depend on breast-feeding or bottle feeding for most nutritional needs.
Rice cereal is usually the first solid food to be given to an infant. It is thought to be the least likely to cause a food allergy. Infant barley and oatmeal are other choices. Either strained fruits or strained vegetables can be offered next.
By the time the infant is six to eight months old, strained meats, egg yolks, and small amounts of dairy foods can be started. At seven to nine months, an infant begins teething and can accept textures in foods. Once an infant reaches eight to ten months of age, he or she can often tolerate more foods. These may include wheat products, whole eggs, and larger amounts of dairy products.
Babies begin to use their hands to feed themselves crackers and soft foods. These include pieces of fruits, vegetables, and tender meats. Crunchy or stringy foods such as nuts, popcorn, or less tender meats may cause choking. As the ability to eat finger foods and to use a spoon improves, an infant will eat more solid foods. That means the baby can rely less on breast milk or formula for daily nutrition.
Learning to drink from a cup is a hard and often messy process. By the time they are one year old, most infants master this skill well enough to wean from a bottle. They may also lose interest in breast-feeding at this point. New foods should be started one at a time and at least two or three days apart. This allows the parent to watch the baby's response to each food.
Toddlers
Providing a toddler with the right diet can be challenging. Children this age want to practice their new skills by eating with their fingers or trying to use a spoon. Appetite varies widely due to a slower growth rate. Toddlers are also more aware of their surroundings and often become distracted. All these things affect what the child is willing to eat at any given meal. There is no longer one single food that will provide all or most of the child's nutritional needs. A variety of foods is needed for good health and steady growth.
The right portion size changes with age. One rule of thumb for feeding toddlers is to offer one tablespoon of each food for every year of age. A child may choose to eat more or less than this amount. Children should be given whole milk until they are two years old. This is because their developing nervous systems need the extra fat. From age 2 to 5, 2% milk is OK.
Toddlers often go on what are called food jags. This means they will eat only one or two foods for several meals or several days at a time. Studies show that most children still meet their nutritional needs over time. The challenge for parents is to be patient. It's crucial to offer a variety of healthy foods. It is not a good idea to try to force a child to eat a food. This approach will only ensure that the food is never a favorite. Parents do not have to give a favorite food when a child refuses what is first offered. Food refusal at one meal will likely result in an improved appetite at the next meal or snack time.
Three meals and two to three snacks per day is ideal. Children cannot eat enough in just three meals to sustain their energy needs so they need between meal snacks. Many parents think that fruit juice is a good source of nutrition. The fact is, children who drink juice or soda between meals are often less hungry at mealtime. Children who drink sweetened juices have a much higher risk of developing childhood obesity.
Choking can be a problem for children under the age of 4. At this age, chewing and swallowing skills are still developing. Choking is also more likely if they are eating while running and playing. Eating and drinking should be allowed only when a child is sitting. Common foods that toddlers tend to choke on include:
# hot dogs
# grapes
# raw vegetables
# popcorn
# nuts
# hard candy
School-age children
School-age children need the same types and number of servings of foods in their diet as preschool children. However, they are able to eat bigger amounts at one time and may eat less often. Most youngsters who are age 5 and older can safely drink skim milk and still grow well. If they continue to have high energy needs for growth, they may still need the extra calories that are found in 2% milk.
Food choices are more influenced by peers at school and by what they see on television. Children are bombarded with commercials for processed foods, such as sweetened breakfast cereals, fast food, candy, and soda. This gives rise to new concerns. Poor eating habits can lead to obesity and iron deficiency anemia. Anemia is a shortage of red blood cells. Children who have developed healthy eating habits are likely to continue to eat well, despite these influences
Nutrition needs and developmental skills change as a child grows. An age-appropriate diet is one that provides the nutrients a child needs to grow and to develop. It also includes foods that a child likes and can eat easily.
The Food Guide Pyramid from the US Department of Agriculture shows the kinds and amounts of foods that are needed to provide adequate nutrition for children. A healthy diet includes grains, fruit, vegetables, meat and meat substitutes, and dairy products. Some foods are hard or unsafe for children to eat because their chewing and swallowing skills are not yet fully developed.
What is the information for this topic?
Infants
From birth until four to six months of age, infants rely on the sucking ability with which they are born. They obtain all their nutrition either from a bottle or from breast-feeding. Newborn infants feed every two to four hours and eat up to eight times a day or more. Breast milk provides all the nutrition a newborn infant needs. Man-made infant formulas are designed to be as much like breast milk as they can be.
Between four and six months of age, an infant begins to take larger amounts of breast milk or formula at one time. This means that they may not want to feed as often. Their digestive systems have developed more fully, so they can eat new foods. An infant who has doubled in weight since birth may be ready to begin solid foods. The baby should also be able to sit up and have good head support.
Eating from a spoon is a new skill a baby must learn. Until about the age of 12 months, an infant can manage only small amounts of food with a spoon or fingers. This eating method does not provide a major source of nutrition. An infant continues to depend on breast-feeding or bottle feeding for most nutritional needs.
Rice cereal is usually the first solid food to be given to an infant. It is thought to be the least likely to cause a food allergy. Infant barley and oatmeal are other choices. Either strained fruits or strained vegetables can be offered next.
By the time the infant is six to eight months old, strained meats, egg yolks, and small amounts of dairy foods can be started. At seven to nine months, an infant begins teething and can accept textures in foods. Once an infant reaches eight to ten months of age, he or she can often tolerate more foods. These may include wheat products, whole eggs, and larger amounts of dairy products.
Babies begin to use their hands to feed themselves crackers and soft foods. These include pieces of fruits, vegetables, and tender meats. Crunchy or stringy foods such as nuts, popcorn, or less tender meats may cause choking. As the ability to eat finger foods and to use a spoon improves, an infant will eat more solid foods. That means the baby can rely less on breast milk or formula for daily nutrition.
Learning to drink from a cup is a hard and often messy process. By the time they are one year old, most infants master this skill well enough to wean from a bottle. They may also lose interest in breast-feeding at this point. New foods should be started one at a time and at least two or three days apart. This allows the parent to watch the baby's response to each food.
Toddlers
Providing a toddler with the right diet can be challenging. Children this age want to practice their new skills by eating with their fingers or trying to use a spoon. Appetite varies widely due to a slower growth rate. Toddlers are also more aware of their surroundings and often become distracted. All these things affect what the child is willing to eat at any given meal. There is no longer one single food that will provide all or most of the child's nutritional needs. A variety of foods is needed for good health and steady growth.
The right portion size changes with age. One rule of thumb for feeding toddlers is to offer one tablespoon of each food for every year of age. A child may choose to eat more or less than this amount. Children should be given whole milk until they are two years old. This is because their developing nervous systems need the extra fat. From age 2 to 5, 2% milk is OK.
Toddlers often go on what are called food jags. This means they will eat only one or two foods for several meals or several days at a time. Studies show that most children still meet their nutritional needs over time. The challenge for parents is to be patient. It's crucial to offer a variety of healthy foods. It is not a good idea to try to force a child to eat a food. This approach will only ensure that the food is never a favorite. Parents do not have to give a favorite food when a child refuses what is first offered. Food refusal at one meal will likely result in an improved appetite at the next meal or snack time.
Three meals and two to three snacks per day is ideal. Children cannot eat enough in just three meals to sustain their energy needs so they need between meal snacks. Many parents think that fruit juice is a good source of nutrition. The fact is, children who drink juice or soda between meals are often less hungry at mealtime. Children who drink sweetened juices have a much higher risk of developing childhood obesity.
Choking can be a problem for children under the age of 4. At this age, chewing and swallowing skills are still developing. Choking is also more likely if they are eating while running and playing. Eating and drinking should be allowed only when a child is sitting. Common foods that toddlers tend to choke on include:
# hot dogs
# grapes
# raw vegetables
# popcorn
# nuts
# hard candy
School-age children
School-age children need the same types and number of servings of foods in their diet as preschool children. However, they are able to eat bigger amounts at one time and may eat less often. Most youngsters who are age 5 and older can safely drink skim milk and still grow well. If they continue to have high energy needs for growth, they may still need the extra calories that are found in 2% milk.
Food choices are more influenced by peers at school and by what they see on television. Children are bombarded with commercials for processed foods, such as sweetened breakfast cereals, fast food, candy, and soda. This gives rise to new concerns. Poor eating habits can lead to obesity and iron deficiency anemia. Anemia is a shortage of red blood cells. Children who have developed healthy eating habits are likely to continue to eat well, despite these influences
Appendicitis
Appendicitis
Appendicitis is an infection of a small section of the bowel called the appendix.
What is going on in the body?
The appendix is a pouch at the junction of the small and large intestines. It is the size of a small finger. The pouch is lined with a mucous membrane that produces a clear secretion. This organ has no known function. One theory, though, is that it plays a role in the immune system very early in life.
Partly digested food and liquids traveling through the bowel pass in and out of the pouch. If this flow is blocked, bacteria trapped in the appendix may multiply. This is thought to cause appendicitis.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Appendicitis occurs when bowel contents that flow into the appendix are blocked and cannot flow out. Normal intestinal bacteria get trapped and multiply. The appendix becomes swollen and infected. The blockage may be due to very thick bowel contents or another obstruction. While cancer of the appendix is very rare, the block is occasionally due to a noncancerous tumor called a carcinoid
Appendicitis is an infection of a small section of the bowel called the appendix.
What is going on in the body?
The appendix is a pouch at the junction of the small and large intestines. It is the size of a small finger. The pouch is lined with a mucous membrane that produces a clear secretion. This organ has no known function. One theory, though, is that it plays a role in the immune system very early in life.
Partly digested food and liquids traveling through the bowel pass in and out of the pouch. If this flow is blocked, bacteria trapped in the appendix may multiply. This is thought to cause appendicitis.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Appendicitis occurs when bowel contents that flow into the appendix are blocked and cannot flow out. Normal intestinal bacteria get trapped and multiply. The appendix becomes swollen and infected. The blockage may be due to very thick bowel contents or another obstruction. While cancer of the appendix is very rare, the block is occasionally due to a noncancerous tumor called a carcinoid
Appendectomy
Laparoscopic Appendectomy,
An appendectomy is surgery to remove the appendix, a small, finger-shaped pouch found at the junction of the small and large intestines.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
Usually, appendectomies are done on people who have an infected or ruptured appendix. Because humans no longer need the appendix and infection is so dangerous, a healthy appendix is sometimes removed during another operation. This is done only when it will not add risks to the main surgery or call for another incision.
Many conditions, such as pelvic infections, gastroenteritis (inflammation or infection of the stomach or intestines) and ovarian problems, cause symptoms similar to appendicitis. Exploratory surgery must be done to confirm appendicitis. Sometimes, even when a surgeon cannot be sure there is a problem, he or she will take out the appendix to be safe.
How is the procedure performed?
The surgery can be done in two ways:
# In an open appendectomy a cut is made through the wall of the lower belly on the right side.
# In a laparascopic appendectomy three small cuts are made in the belly button and abdomen. A harmless gas is pumped into the abdomen to separate the organs. A scope that lets the surgeon see inside the body and tiny surgical tools are passed through the incisions. If the appendix is ruptured, the surgeon may have to go to open surgery.
Usually, just an artery and a veil of thin tissue links the appendix to the intestines. Once the surgeon opens up the body, it is a fairly simple job to clamp off tissues and the artery so that the organ can be safely removed.
An appendectomy is surgery to remove the appendix, a small, finger-shaped pouch found at the junction of the small and large intestines.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
Usually, appendectomies are done on people who have an infected or ruptured appendix. Because humans no longer need the appendix and infection is so dangerous, a healthy appendix is sometimes removed during another operation. This is done only when it will not add risks to the main surgery or call for another incision.
Many conditions, such as pelvic infections, gastroenteritis (inflammation or infection of the stomach or intestines) and ovarian problems, cause symptoms similar to appendicitis. Exploratory surgery must be done to confirm appendicitis. Sometimes, even when a surgeon cannot be sure there is a problem, he or she will take out the appendix to be safe.
How is the procedure performed?
The surgery can be done in two ways:
# In an open appendectomy a cut is made through the wall of the lower belly on the right side.
# In a laparascopic appendectomy three small cuts are made in the belly button and abdomen. A harmless gas is pumped into the abdomen to separate the organs. A scope that lets the surgeon see inside the body and tiny surgical tools are passed through the incisions. If the appendix is ruptured, the surgeon may have to go to open surgery.
Usually, just an artery and a veil of thin tissue links the appendix to the intestines. Once the surgeon opens up the body, it is a fairly simple job to clamp off tissues and the artery so that the organ can be safely removed.
Apparent Life-Threatening Event
Apnea Spell, Infant Apnea, Acute Life-Threatening Episode, ALTE
An apparent life-threatening event, or ALTE, is sometimes referred to as a prolonged infant apnea spell. It is an episode in which an infant has apnea, or stops breathing for a short time. The episode lasts long enough to cause:
# choking and gagging
# color change in the skin and lips, first bright red then blue
# muscle weakness and limpness
Babies often breathe in cycles. That is, they alternate rapid breathing with slow breathing. This can be normal. Apnea, however, occurs when the baby has an episode of not breathing at all that lasts for more than 20 seconds.
What is going on in the body?
What occurs in the body during an ALTE depends on the cause of the episode. A heart or lung problem may cause an infant to temporarily stop breathing. As the lack of breathing continues, the infant may start to struggle for air, cough, and gag. Eventually, as the oxygen level in the blood decreases, the infant may become limp and pale and then may turn blue. This can occur both when an infant is sleeping or when the baby is playing and active. Sometimes simply touching the infant or picking the infant up will make him or her start breathing again. In other cases, advanced medical support may be needed.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Potential causes of ALTE include:
# a viral infection such as respiratory syncytial virus, also known as RSV
# a bacterial infection such as pneumonia
# something blocking the infant's airway, such as food that was inhaled into the windpipe or an abnormally narrow airway
# cardiac arrhythmia, which is an abnormal heart rhythm
# cardiomyopathy, which is an abnormal growth of the heart muscle
# gastrointestinal conditions, such as gastroesophageal reflux disorder, also known as GERD
# respiratory conditions, such as whooping cough
# neurological disorders, such as seizures, meningitis, or brain tumors
# Munchausen syndrome by proxy, a parenting disorder in which a parent fabricates symptoms in the child
In approximately 50% of cases of ALTE, the cause is not found.
Infants who are born prematurely may be at greater risk for an ALTE. Infants who have a history of respiratory or cardiac problems, such as congenital heart disease, may also be at greater risk for ALTE. Infants with other family members who have had episodes of ALTE may also be more at risk
An apparent life-threatening event, or ALTE, is sometimes referred to as a prolonged infant apnea spell. It is an episode in which an infant has apnea, or stops breathing for a short time. The episode lasts long enough to cause:
# choking and gagging
# color change in the skin and lips, first bright red then blue
# muscle weakness and limpness
Babies often breathe in cycles. That is, they alternate rapid breathing with slow breathing. This can be normal. Apnea, however, occurs when the baby has an episode of not breathing at all that lasts for more than 20 seconds.
What is going on in the body?
What occurs in the body during an ALTE depends on the cause of the episode. A heart or lung problem may cause an infant to temporarily stop breathing. As the lack of breathing continues, the infant may start to struggle for air, cough, and gag. Eventually, as the oxygen level in the blood decreases, the infant may become limp and pale and then may turn blue. This can occur both when an infant is sleeping or when the baby is playing and active. Sometimes simply touching the infant or picking the infant up will make him or her start breathing again. In other cases, advanced medical support may be needed.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Potential causes of ALTE include:
# a viral infection such as respiratory syncytial virus, also known as RSV
# a bacterial infection such as pneumonia
# something blocking the infant's airway, such as food that was inhaled into the windpipe or an abnormally narrow airway
# cardiac arrhythmia, which is an abnormal heart rhythm
# cardiomyopathy, which is an abnormal growth of the heart muscle
# gastrointestinal conditions, such as gastroesophageal reflux disorder, also known as GERD
# respiratory conditions, such as whooping cough
# neurological disorders, such as seizures, meningitis, or brain tumors
# Munchausen syndrome by proxy, a parenting disorder in which a parent fabricates symptoms in the child
In approximately 50% of cases of ALTE, the cause is not found.
Infants who are born prematurely may be at greater risk for an ALTE. Infants who have a history of respiratory or cardiac problems, such as congenital heart disease, may also be at greater risk for ALTE. Infants with other family members who have had episodes of ALTE may also be more at risk
Aplastic Anemia
Aplastic Anemia,
Aplastic anemia is a condition in which the bone marrow fails to produce blood cells.
What is going on in the body?
The bone marrow contains special cells known as stem cells. Stem cells are like infant cells. They may develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. White blood cells fight infection. Platelets control bleeding by forming blood clots in certain situations. Blood cells have a limited life, so new ones are made constantly.
Certain conditions can damage stem cells or change their environment. The stem cells stop making blood cells. The bone marrow fills up with fat, instead of developing blood cells. The low level of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in the body is known as aplastic anemia.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
In 50% of the people with aplastic anemia, the cause is unknown. In other cases, the anemia may be caused by one of the following factors:
# airplane glue
# blood disorders
# chemicals, such as benzene and pesticides
# chemotherapy
# drugs, such as chloramphenicol
# inherited or genetic causes, which may be present at birth
# pregnancy
# radiation therapy
# viruses such as herpes, hepatitis C, and HIV
Some experts believe that aplastic anemia is an autoimmune disorder, a condition in which the body produces antibodies against its own blood cells
Aplastic anemia is a condition in which the bone marrow fails to produce blood cells.
What is going on in the body?
The bone marrow contains special cells known as stem cells. Stem cells are like infant cells. They may develop into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells carry oxygen throughout the body. White blood cells fight infection. Platelets control bleeding by forming blood clots in certain situations. Blood cells have a limited life, so new ones are made constantly.
Certain conditions can damage stem cells or change their environment. The stem cells stop making blood cells. The bone marrow fills up with fat, instead of developing blood cells. The low level of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in the body is known as aplastic anemia.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
In 50% of the people with aplastic anemia, the cause is unknown. In other cases, the anemia may be caused by one of the following factors:
# airplane glue
# blood disorders
# chemicals, such as benzene and pesticides
# chemotherapy
# drugs, such as chloramphenicol
# inherited or genetic causes, which may be present at birth
# pregnancy
# radiation therapy
# viruses such as herpes, hepatitis C, and HIV
Some experts believe that aplastic anemia is an autoimmune disorder, a condition in which the body produces antibodies against its own blood cells
Speech Impairment
Aphasia, Speech Impairment
Impairment means that there is a change in the way a certain body part works that is different from usual. Speech impairment means it is difficult to use the body parts and muscles that make the motions or sounds needed for speech.
Language impairment is different from speech impairment. It is caused by damage to the brain that makes it difficult or even impossible to use or understand words.
What is the information for this topic?
Speech impairments vary widely in their cause, effect, and treatment.
How does this impairment occur?
Some babies are born with physical conditions, such as cleft lip and cleft palate, that make it difficult or impossible to learn to speak. Cleft lip is an incomplete joining of the upper lip. Cleft palate is an abnormal passageway through the roof of the mouth into the airway of the nose. Because these problems are present at birth, they are called congenital.
Following are some other causes of speech impairment:
# brain tumor
# congenital disorders, such as Down syndrome, which also causes mental retardation
# emotional or psychological problems, such as selective mutism
# injuries to the brain, such as head injury
# injury to the muscles needed for speech
# medication side effects
# muscle weakness or paralysis, which may occur in degenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or multiple sclerosis
# Parkinson's disease, a degenerative nerve disorder
# profound deafness, or other hearing impairments
# stroke
# surgical removal of the tongue or voice box, known as laryngectomy
# throat cancer or tongue cancer
Are there ways to lessen a speech impairment?
Some congenital disorders, such as cleft palate or lip, can be repaired with surgery. With other problems, a speech therapist can help during rehabilitation supervised by a doctor. People who have lost their speech because of a stroke can often regain some or all of their speaking ability by working with a speech therapist.
Some children and adults can learn American Sign Language, or ASL. ASL is mostly used by people who are deaf or severely hearing impaired, but many people can benefit from learning it. People who have lost the ability to speak because of surgery can sometimes use an electronic device that produces sounds imitating the human voice. Known as augmentative communication, these devices include typewriters, speech computers, or special boards with pictures or words.
How do people with this impairment function?
People who are born with a speech impairment and learn ASL at an early age can function well. They may stay within a circle of friends and family who are at ease with them.
People who lose the ability to speak due to illness or injury may feel frustrated and impatient when trying to communicate. Some people can regain their speech or learn to speak well enough to get their meaning across.
It's important to treat a person with a speech impairment normally. People should take their time and be patient when trying to communicate with such a person. Difficulty with speech doesn't have anything to do with intelligence. If understanding is difficult, it may be useful to ask the person to write a word or phrase
Impairment means that there is a change in the way a certain body part works that is different from usual. Speech impairment means it is difficult to use the body parts and muscles that make the motions or sounds needed for speech.
Language impairment is different from speech impairment. It is caused by damage to the brain that makes it difficult or even impossible to use or understand words.
What is the information for this topic?
Speech impairments vary widely in their cause, effect, and treatment.
How does this impairment occur?
Some babies are born with physical conditions, such as cleft lip and cleft palate, that make it difficult or impossible to learn to speak. Cleft lip is an incomplete joining of the upper lip. Cleft palate is an abnormal passageway through the roof of the mouth into the airway of the nose. Because these problems are present at birth, they are called congenital.
Following are some other causes of speech impairment:
# brain tumor
# congenital disorders, such as Down syndrome, which also causes mental retardation
# emotional or psychological problems, such as selective mutism
# injuries to the brain, such as head injury
# injury to the muscles needed for speech
# medication side effects
# muscle weakness or paralysis, which may occur in degenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or multiple sclerosis
# Parkinson's disease, a degenerative nerve disorder
# profound deafness, or other hearing impairments
# stroke
# surgical removal of the tongue or voice box, known as laryngectomy
# throat cancer or tongue cancer
Are there ways to lessen a speech impairment?
Some congenital disorders, such as cleft palate or lip, can be repaired with surgery. With other problems, a speech therapist can help during rehabilitation supervised by a doctor. People who have lost their speech because of a stroke can often regain some or all of their speaking ability by working with a speech therapist.
Some children and adults can learn American Sign Language, or ASL. ASL is mostly used by people who are deaf or severely hearing impaired, but many people can benefit from learning it. People who have lost the ability to speak because of surgery can sometimes use an electronic device that produces sounds imitating the human voice. Known as augmentative communication, these devices include typewriters, speech computers, or special boards with pictures or words.
How do people with this impairment function?
People who are born with a speech impairment and learn ASL at an early age can function well. They may stay within a circle of friends and family who are at ease with them.
People who lose the ability to speak due to illness or injury may feel frustrated and impatient when trying to communicate. Some people can regain their speech or learn to speak well enough to get their meaning across.
It's important to treat a person with a speech impairment normally. People should take their time and be patient when trying to communicate with such a person. Difficulty with speech doesn't have anything to do with intelligence. If understanding is difficult, it may be useful to ask the person to write a word or phrase
APGAR
Newborn Scoring
The APGAR score is a quick test done on an infant at 1, 5, and sometimes 10 minutes after birth to determine his or her physical condition.
Who is a candidate for the test?
All babies delivered in a hospital or birthing center have APGAR testing by trained delivery room staff. The test is used as a screening tool so doctors can decide what medical help may be needed to stabilize a newborn in distress.
How is the test performed?
The APGAR score is based on looking at five aspects of the infant, first at 1 minute, then again at 5 minutes. If fetal distress was present during labor and delivery, a 10-minute score may also be performed. Each aspect of the test is scored from 0 to 2 points, depending upon the health of the infant, as follows:
# heart rate: 0 = no heart beat; 1 = heart rate less than 100; 2 = heart rate more than 100
# respiratory effort: 0 = no breaths; 1 = slow, irregular breathing; 2 = crying with breaths
# muscle tone: 0 = flaccid; 1 = some flexion of extremities; 2 = active motion
# reflex irritability, which is how much the newborn reacts in response to stimuli: 0 = no response; 1 = grimacing; 2 = vigorous cry
# color: 0 = pale blue; 1 = body is pink, but extremities are blue; 2 = body and extremities are pink
The APGAR score is a quick test done on an infant at 1, 5, and sometimes 10 minutes after birth to determine his or her physical condition.
Who is a candidate for the test?
All babies delivered in a hospital or birthing center have APGAR testing by trained delivery room staff. The test is used as a screening tool so doctors can decide what medical help may be needed to stabilize a newborn in distress.
How is the test performed?
The APGAR score is based on looking at five aspects of the infant, first at 1 minute, then again at 5 minutes. If fetal distress was present during labor and delivery, a 10-minute score may also be performed. Each aspect of the test is scored from 0 to 2 points, depending upon the health of the infant, as follows:
# heart rate: 0 = no heart beat; 1 = heart rate less than 100; 2 = heart rate more than 100
# respiratory effort: 0 = no breaths; 1 = slow, irregular breathing; 2 = crying with breaths
# muscle tone: 0 = flaccid; 1 = some flexion of extremities; 2 = active motion
# reflex irritability, which is how much the newborn reacts in response to stimuli: 0 = no response; 1 = grimacing; 2 = vigorous cry
# color: 0 = pale blue; 1 = body is pink, but extremities are blue; 2 = body and extremities are pink
Aortic Stenosis
Aortic Stenosis,
Aortic stenosis is a narrowing of the opening of the aortic valve. The aortic valve is a flap-like opening located between the left side of the heart and the aorta. The aorta is the main artery carrying blood from the heart.
What is going on in the body?
The heart is divided into two halves, right and left. Each side has a pumping chamber, called a ventricle. The left ventricle receives blood from the lungs. During a heartbeat, the left heart chamber squeezes, generating enough pressure to open the aortic valve. Blood from the left side is then pumped into the aorta and out into the body. When aortic stenosis has occurred, the opening of the valve is narrower than normal. This reduces the amount of blood flow to the body.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The causes of aortic stenosis include:
# calcium deposits that harden, or calcify, the valve
# congenital heart disease from heart defects present at birth
# scarring of the valve from rheumatic heart disease
Aortic stenosis is a narrowing of the opening of the aortic valve. The aortic valve is a flap-like opening located between the left side of the heart and the aorta. The aorta is the main artery carrying blood from the heart.
What is going on in the body?
The heart is divided into two halves, right and left. Each side has a pumping chamber, called a ventricle. The left ventricle receives blood from the lungs. During a heartbeat, the left heart chamber squeezes, generating enough pressure to open the aortic valve. Blood from the left side is then pumped into the aorta and out into the body. When aortic stenosis has occurred, the opening of the valve is narrower than normal. This reduces the amount of blood flow to the body.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The causes of aortic stenosis include:
# calcium deposits that harden, or calcify, the valve
# congenital heart disease from heart defects present at birth
# scarring of the valve from rheumatic heart disease
Aortic Regurgitation
Aortic Regurgitation, Aortic Insufficiency
Aortic regurgitation is a condition in which blood flows backwards into the left side of the heart through the aortic valve. The aortic valve is a flap-like opening located between the left side of the heart and the aorta. The aorta is the main artery carrying blood from the heart.
What is going on in the body?
The heart is divided into two halves, right and left. Each side has a pumping chamber, called a ventricle. The left ventricle receives blood from the lungs. During a heartbeat, the left heart chamber squeezes, generating enough pressure to open the aortic valve. Blood from the left side is then pumped into the aorta and out into the body for general circulation. As the left heart chamber empties, the aortic valve closes.
In a normal heart, the valve seals shut, and no blood is allowed to flow back into the left side. But when the aortic valve is abnormal, blood does flow backwards. This causes blood to flow into the left heart chamber from two sources. The first source is from the lungs, which is normal. The second source is from the backflow of blood across the leaky aortic valve. When the heart receives this excess amount of blood, the left side must work harder. This excess work can stress the left side of the heart and cause it to enlarge. This damage can happen slowly over time, or can get worse rather quickly.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
There are many causes of aortic regurgitation. Some of the more common ones include:
# ankylosing spondylitis, a spinal disorder
# aortic dissection, a tear in the aorta that allows blood to flow between the inner and outer layers
# congenital heart defects that are present at birth
# high blood pressure
# infective endocarditis, an infection in the valves or lining of the heart
# Marfan syndrome, an inherited disease that weakens body tissues
# Reiter syndrome, an arthritic disorder that affects adult males
# rheumatic fever, a disease that can cause arthritis and heart problems
# rheumatoid arthritis, which also causes joint pain and swelling
# syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease (STD)
# systemic lupus erythematosus, an autoimmune disorder in which the person creates antibodies against his or her own tissues
Aortic regurgitation is a condition in which blood flows backwards into the left side of the heart through the aortic valve. The aortic valve is a flap-like opening located between the left side of the heart and the aorta. The aorta is the main artery carrying blood from the heart.
What is going on in the body?
The heart is divided into two halves, right and left. Each side has a pumping chamber, called a ventricle. The left ventricle receives blood from the lungs. During a heartbeat, the left heart chamber squeezes, generating enough pressure to open the aortic valve. Blood from the left side is then pumped into the aorta and out into the body for general circulation. As the left heart chamber empties, the aortic valve closes.
In a normal heart, the valve seals shut, and no blood is allowed to flow back into the left side. But when the aortic valve is abnormal, blood does flow backwards. This causes blood to flow into the left heart chamber from two sources. The first source is from the lungs, which is normal. The second source is from the backflow of blood across the leaky aortic valve. When the heart receives this excess amount of blood, the left side must work harder. This excess work can stress the left side of the heart and cause it to enlarge. This damage can happen slowly over time, or can get worse rather quickly.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
There are many causes of aortic regurgitation. Some of the more common ones include:
# ankylosing spondylitis, a spinal disorder
# aortic dissection, a tear in the aorta that allows blood to flow between the inner and outer layers
# congenital heart defects that are present at birth
# high blood pressure
# infective endocarditis, an infection in the valves or lining of the heart
# Marfan syndrome, an inherited disease that weakens body tissues
# Reiter syndrome, an arthritic disorder that affects adult males
# rheumatic fever, a disease that can cause arthritis and heart problems
# rheumatoid arthritis, which also causes joint pain and swelling
# syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease (STD)
# systemic lupus erythematosus, an autoimmune disorder in which the person creates antibodies against his or her own tissues
Aortic Dissection
Aortic Dissection, Aortic Dissecting Intramural Hematoma, Dissection of the Aorta, Dissecting Aortic Aneurysm
An aortic dissection is a tear in the inner layer of the wall of the aorta. The aorta is the largest artery in the body and is directly attached to the heart.
What is going on in the body?
The aorta and its branches carry all the blood from the heart out to the rest of the body. When there is a weakening of the wall of the aorta for any reason, blood flow can cause a tear in the wall. This tear forms a tube or canal within the wall of the aorta. Though the aorta goes down into the abdomen, this condition usually starts in the chest. In some cases, blood flowing within this canal can reenter the aorta or perforate into the body and cause massive bleeding and even death.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Common causes of aortic dissection include:
# high blood pressure
# trauma to the chest, such as a crush injury from a motor vehicle accident
# hereditary diseases that weaken the wall of the aorta
# congenital heart disease, or heart abnormalities present at birth
# pregnancy
# any disease that weakens or damages the wall of the aorta
# surgery or other procedures, which may damage the aorta
An aortic dissection is a tear in the inner layer of the wall of the aorta. The aorta is the largest artery in the body and is directly attached to the heart.
What is going on in the body?
The aorta and its branches carry all the blood from the heart out to the rest of the body. When there is a weakening of the wall of the aorta for any reason, blood flow can cause a tear in the wall. This tear forms a tube or canal within the wall of the aorta. Though the aorta goes down into the abdomen, this condition usually starts in the chest. In some cases, blood flowing within this canal can reenter the aorta or perforate into the body and cause massive bleeding and even death.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Common causes of aortic dissection include:
# high blood pressure
# trauma to the chest, such as a crush injury from a motor vehicle accident
# hereditary diseases that weaken the wall of the aorta
# congenital heart disease, or heart abnormalities present at birth
# pregnancy
# any disease that weakens or damages the wall of the aorta
# surgery or other procedures, which may damage the aorta
Coarctation of the Aorta
Coarctation of the Aorta, Aortic Coarctation, CoA
The aorta is the main artery of the body and carries blood away from the heart. Coarctation is an abnormal narrowing in the aorta that is present at birth, causing congenital heart disease.
What is going on in the body?
It is not known why coarctation of the aorta occurs. The narrowing in the aorta decreases the amount of blood that can flow through it. The worse the narrowing, the worse the symptoms. Severe cases may lead to early symptoms in infancy. Milder cases may not be discovered until adulthood.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The cause of coarctation of the aorta is unknown. Those who are at higher risk for this condition include:
# males, who are more commonly affected than females
# those with Turner syndrome, a condition present at birth that affects only females and is caused by an abnormal number of chromosomes
# those with other heart defects present at birth, often called congenital heart disease
The aorta is the main artery of the body and carries blood away from the heart. Coarctation is an abnormal narrowing in the aorta that is present at birth, causing congenital heart disease.
What is going on in the body?
It is not known why coarctation of the aorta occurs. The narrowing in the aorta decreases the amount of blood that can flow through it. The worse the narrowing, the worse the symptoms. Severe cases may lead to early symptoms in infancy. Milder cases may not be discovered until adulthood.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The cause of coarctation of the aorta is unknown. Those who are at higher risk for this condition include:
# males, who are more commonly affected than females
# those with Turner syndrome, a condition present at birth that affects only females and is caused by an abnormal number of chromosomes
# those with other heart defects present at birth, often called congenital heart disease
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety is a vague, uncomfortable feeling of fear, dread, or danger. Anxiety disorders are a group of psychiatric conditions that involve anxiety. The problem may be real or imaginary. Symptoms can vary in severity and length. There are several types of anxiety:
# acute situational anxiety
# generalized anxiety disorder
# panic disorder
# post-traumatic stress disorder
# phobias
# obsessive compulsive disorders
What is going on in the body?
Everyone feels anxious from time to time. People who are anxious may be worried about things around them. They may have an internal, mental struggle. Sometimes anxiety is so severe it causes a great deal of distress. It can interfere with the ability to function in society. In these cases, an anxiety disorder is said to be present.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Anxiety disorders are not caused by other medical conditions. It is not known why some people are more anxious than others. The feeling of anxiety is caused by the body's defense mechanisms. This is called fight or flight. The body makes adrenaline, which causes the symptoms
Anxiety is a vague, uncomfortable feeling of fear, dread, or danger. Anxiety disorders are a group of psychiatric conditions that involve anxiety. The problem may be real or imaginary. Symptoms can vary in severity and length. There are several types of anxiety:
# acute situational anxiety
# generalized anxiety disorder
# panic disorder
# post-traumatic stress disorder
# phobias
# obsessive compulsive disorders
What is going on in the body?
Everyone feels anxious from time to time. People who are anxious may be worried about things around them. They may have an internal, mental struggle. Sometimes anxiety is so severe it causes a great deal of distress. It can interfere with the ability to function in society. In these cases, an anxiety disorder is said to be present.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Anxiety disorders are not caused by other medical conditions. It is not known why some people are more anxious than others. The feeling of anxiety is caused by the body's defense mechanisms. This is called fight or flight. The body makes adrenaline, which causes the symptoms
ASO
Anti-Streptolysin O, ASO
This test detects an antibody known as ASO, or anti-streptolysin O. This antibody appears when a person has certain bacteria in the blood. The bacteria are Group A streptococcus, which make an enzyme called streptolysin O. This enzyme destroys red blood cells.
Who is a candidate for the test?
This test can be used to:
# confirm a recent or ongoing infection with Group A streptococcus
# help diagnose rheumatic fever or a streptococcal infection in the kidneys
# determine whether a person has rheumatoid arthritis or rheumatic fever
How is the test performed?
To do the test, a blood sample is taken from a vein on the forearm or hand. First, the skin over the vein is cleaned with an antiseptic. Next, a strong rubber tube, or tourniquet, is wrapped around the upper arm. This enlarges the veins in the lower arm by restricting blood flow through them. A fine needle is gently inserted into the vein chosen and the tourniquet is removed. Blood flows from the vein through the needle. It is collected in a syringe or vial for testing in the laboratory. After the needle is withdrawn, the puncture site is covered for a short time to prevent bleeding
This test detects an antibody known as ASO, or anti-streptolysin O. This antibody appears when a person has certain bacteria in the blood. The bacteria are Group A streptococcus, which make an enzyme called streptolysin O. This enzyme destroys red blood cells.
Who is a candidate for the test?
This test can be used to:
# confirm a recent or ongoing infection with Group A streptococcus
# help diagnose rheumatic fever or a streptococcal infection in the kidneys
# determine whether a person has rheumatoid arthritis or rheumatic fever
How is the test performed?
To do the test, a blood sample is taken from a vein on the forearm or hand. First, the skin over the vein is cleaned with an antiseptic. Next, a strong rubber tube, or tourniquet, is wrapped around the upper arm. This enlarges the veins in the lower arm by restricting blood flow through them. A fine needle is gently inserted into the vein chosen and the tourniquet is removed. Blood flows from the vein through the needle. It is collected in a syringe or vial for testing in the laboratory. After the needle is withdrawn, the puncture site is covered for a short time to prevent bleeding
Antisocial Personality Disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder, Psychopathic Personality Disorder, Sociopathic Personality Disorder
Personality is a distinct set of traits, behaviors, beliefs, and patterns. People who have a personality disorder have a hard time dealing with other people. Those who have antisocial personality disorder (APD) ignore normal rules of social behavior and are impulsive and reckless. This means they often have aggressive and violent relationships. They show no respect for others and do not feel remorse for their actions. Early signs include lying, stealing, fighting, and missing school. People who have APD are at high risk for substance abuse, especially alcohol. This is true because alcohol and drugs can help relieve the tension, irritability, and boredom they feel. These problems continue into adulthood. Diagnosis is made after the age of 18.
What is going on in the body?
Experts are not sure what is going on in the body that may be related to this condition. Further study is needed.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Experts do not know the specific causes of APD. The disorder occurs much more often in people who have a parent with APD. So, experts think that biological and genetic factors play a key role. APD is four times more common in men than in women.
Experts also believe that frequent exposure to criminal behavior and substance abuse contributes to the development of APD. Children raised in a chaotic, neglectful, harsh, and abusive home are also at higher risk
Personality is a distinct set of traits, behaviors, beliefs, and patterns. People who have a personality disorder have a hard time dealing with other people. Those who have antisocial personality disorder (APD) ignore normal rules of social behavior and are impulsive and reckless. This means they often have aggressive and violent relationships. They show no respect for others and do not feel remorse for their actions. Early signs include lying, stealing, fighting, and missing school. People who have APD are at high risk for substance abuse, especially alcohol. This is true because alcohol and drugs can help relieve the tension, irritability, and boredom they feel. These problems continue into adulthood. Diagnosis is made after the age of 18.
What is going on in the body?
Experts are not sure what is going on in the body that may be related to this condition. Further study is needed.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Experts do not know the specific causes of APD. The disorder occurs much more often in people who have a parent with APD. So, experts think that biological and genetic factors play a key role. APD is four times more common in men than in women.
Experts also believe that frequent exposure to criminal behavior and substance abuse contributes to the development of APD. Children raised in a chaotic, neglectful, harsh, and abusive home are also at higher risk
Antioxidants
Antioxidants are a certain type of vitamins, minerals, and enzymes. They help protect your body from some health problems, such as:
# cancer
# artery and heart disease
# arthritis
# cataracts
Beta-carotene, vitamins C and E, and selenium are the antioxidants that have been studied the most.
Information
Researchers are now studying whether taking higher amounts of antioxidant supplements can help reduce the risk of chronic diseases. They continue to study how much would be needed, how long they would need to be taken, and what would be the long-term side effects. The results will not be known for a few more years.
In the meantime, experts recommend that people eat a balanced diet low in fat with at least 5 servings per day of fresh fruits and vegetables, and plenty of whole grains. This provides good sources of the nutrients that help promote health and fight disease. These nutrients include antioxidants, dietary fiber, and other vitamins and minerals
# cancer
# artery and heart disease
# arthritis
# cataracts
Beta-carotene, vitamins C and E, and selenium are the antioxidants that have been studied the most.
Information
Researchers are now studying whether taking higher amounts of antioxidant supplements can help reduce the risk of chronic diseases. They continue to study how much would be needed, how long they would need to be taken, and what would be the long-term side effects. The results will not be known for a few more years.
In the meantime, experts recommend that people eat a balanced diet low in fat with at least 5 servings per day of fresh fruits and vegetables, and plenty of whole grains. This provides good sources of the nutrients that help promote health and fight disease. These nutrients include antioxidants, dietary fiber, and other vitamins and minerals
Goodpasture Syndrome
Anti-GBM Antibody Disease, Goodpasture Syndrome
Goodpasture syndrome is a condition in which a person's own body attacks the lungs and kidneys. This may result in coughing up blood and rapid kidney failure.
What is going on in the body?
Goodpasture syndrome is a type of autoimmune disease, in which the person's body attacks its own tissue for unknown reasons. It occurs when a person's antibodies mistakenly attack the air-filled sacs of the lungs and the tiny filters in the kidneys. This can lead to rapid kidney failure and lung problems.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
The cause of Goodpasture syndrome is unknown. It is more commonly seen in people who smoke, or have been exposed to hydrocarbons, such as gasoline and paint thinners
Goodpasture syndrome is a condition in which a person's own body attacks the lungs and kidneys. This may result in coughing up blood and rapid kidney failure.
What is going on in the body?
Goodpasture syndrome is a type of autoimmune disease, in which the person's body attacks its own tissue for unknown reasons. It occurs when a person's antibodies mistakenly attack the air-filled sacs of the lungs and the tiny filters in the kidneys. This can lead to rapid kidney failure and lung problems.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
The cause of Goodpasture syndrome is unknown. It is more commonly seen in people who smoke, or have been exposed to hydrocarbons, such as gasoline and paint thinners
Chemotherapy
Antineoplastic Medications, Anticancer Medications, Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy refers to medicines that can kill or control cancer. Chemotherapy medicines target and treat a specific area affected by cancer. These medicines travel to all parts of the body through the bloodstream. Chemotherapy is a systemic treatment, which means it is a treatment that affects the whole body.
There are many kinds of chemotherapy. The medicine chosen will depend on the type and the extent of the cancer, as well as the potential side effects of the medicine. Each medicine will have its own specific side effects. Most of the time, chemotherapy is given as an outpatient procedure in a clinic or a doctor's office. People generally do not need to stay overnight in the hospital to receive chemotherapy.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
Following are some of the common uses of chemotherapy:
# to control the growth of the cancer
# to cure the cancer
# to relieve the symptoms or pain caused by the cancer
Some types of cancer respond better to chemotherapy than others. Leukemia, lymphoma, breast cancer, and colorectal cancer are often treated with chemotherapy.
How is the procedure performed?
Most chemotherapy medicines are given directly into a vein. This allows them to enter the bloodstream quickly. Some medicines are given by mouth. These medicines are absorbed from the stomach into the bloodstream. Combinations of medicines are often used for the most effective treatment
Chemotherapy refers to medicines that can kill or control cancer. Chemotherapy medicines target and treat a specific area affected by cancer. These medicines travel to all parts of the body through the bloodstream. Chemotherapy is a systemic treatment, which means it is a treatment that affects the whole body.
There are many kinds of chemotherapy. The medicine chosen will depend on the type and the extent of the cancer, as well as the potential side effects of the medicine. Each medicine will have its own specific side effects. Most of the time, chemotherapy is given as an outpatient procedure in a clinic or a doctor's office. People generally do not need to stay overnight in the hospital to receive chemotherapy.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
Following are some of the common uses of chemotherapy:
# to control the growth of the cancer
# to cure the cancer
# to relieve the symptoms or pain caused by the cancer
Some types of cancer respond better to chemotherapy than others. Leukemia, lymphoma, breast cancer, and colorectal cancer are often treated with chemotherapy.
How is the procedure performed?
Most chemotherapy medicines are given directly into a vein. This allows them to enter the bloodstream quickly. Some medicines are given by mouth. These medicines are absorbed from the stomach into the bloodstream. Combinations of medicines are often used for the most effective treatment
Antibody Titer
Antibody Titer
The antibody titer detects and measures the amount of antibodies in the blood. Antibodies are proteins made by the immune system. These antibodies are made to attack a real or imagined threat. For example, antibodies may be made in some cases to attack bacteria causing an infection. In other cases, however, antibodies may be made to attack a person's own body.
Who is a candidate for the test?
One common function of the antibody titer is to detect antibodies that the body has made to fight off a certain disease. Sometimes this is done to check whether a person has gotten a vaccine against a disease. It can also see if someone has natural immunity due to having the disease in the past. This test may be useful in the diagnosis of the following diseases:
# Epstein-Barr virus infection, which is the main cause of infectious mononucleosis
# hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or hepatitis D, which are viral infections that primarily affect the liver
# Lyme disease, which is a bacterial infection that can be caught from a tick bite
# rubella, or German measles
# syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease
Another common function of the antibody titer is to see if the immune system is creating antibodies to a person's own body. This response occurs in a variety of autoimmune disorders. Following are some examples of autoimmune conditions in which this test may be useful:
# Graves' disease, a condition that results in an overactive thyroid gland
# Hashimoto's thyroiditis, a condition that results in an underactive thyroid gland
# myasthenia gravis, a condition that causes weakness in the muscles
# rheumatoid arthritis, which can cause joint inflammation and deformity
# systemic lupus erythematosus, a condition that affects many body systems
The antibody titer also is useful in following the course of known or suspected infections or conditions.
How is the test performed?
To measure the levels of antibodies in the blood, a blood sample is needed. This is usually taken from a vein on the forearm or hand. First, the skin over the vein is cleaned. Next, a strong rubber tube, or tourniquet, is wrapped around the upper arm. This enlarges the veins in the lower arm by restricting blood flow through them.
A fine needle is gently inserted into the chosen vein and the tourniquet is removed. Blood flows from the vein through the needle. It is collected in a syringe or vial for testing in the lab. After the needle is withdrawn, the puncture site is covered for a short time to prevent bleeding
The antibody titer detects and measures the amount of antibodies in the blood. Antibodies are proteins made by the immune system. These antibodies are made to attack a real or imagined threat. For example, antibodies may be made in some cases to attack bacteria causing an infection. In other cases, however, antibodies may be made to attack a person's own body.
Who is a candidate for the test?
One common function of the antibody titer is to detect antibodies that the body has made to fight off a certain disease. Sometimes this is done to check whether a person has gotten a vaccine against a disease. It can also see if someone has natural immunity due to having the disease in the past. This test may be useful in the diagnosis of the following diseases:
# Epstein-Barr virus infection, which is the main cause of infectious mononucleosis
# hepatitis A, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, or hepatitis D, which are viral infections that primarily affect the liver
# Lyme disease, which is a bacterial infection that can be caught from a tick bite
# rubella, or German measles
# syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease
Another common function of the antibody titer is to see if the immune system is creating antibodies to a person's own body. This response occurs in a variety of autoimmune disorders. Following are some examples of autoimmune conditions in which this test may be useful:
# Graves' disease, a condition that results in an overactive thyroid gland
# Hashimoto's thyroiditis, a condition that results in an underactive thyroid gland
# myasthenia gravis, a condition that causes weakness in the muscles
# rheumatoid arthritis, which can cause joint inflammation and deformity
# systemic lupus erythematosus, a condition that affects many body systems
The antibody titer also is useful in following the course of known or suspected infections or conditions.
How is the test performed?
To measure the levels of antibodies in the blood, a blood sample is needed. This is usually taken from a vein on the forearm or hand. First, the skin over the vein is cleaned. Next, a strong rubber tube, or tourniquet, is wrapped around the upper arm. This enlarges the veins in the lower arm by restricting blood flow through them.
A fine needle is gently inserted into the chosen vein and the tourniquet is removed. Blood flows from the vein through the needle. It is collected in a syringe or vial for testing in the lab. After the needle is withdrawn, the puncture site is covered for a short time to prevent bleeding
Diarrhea Caused by Antibiotics
Diarrhea Caused by Antibiotics,Antibiotic-Associated Colitis
Diarrhea caused by antibiotics involves the passage of frequent, loose stools along with a variety of other symptoms.
What is going on in the body?
One possible side effect of taking antibiotics is diarrhea. Most antibiotics have the ability to cause diarrhea in some people. Sometimes the antibiotic irritates the bowel, and that causes the diarrhea. At other times, the antibiotic can make a bacterial infection more likely. The bacterial infection itself then causes the diarrhea. This is the case when antibiotic-associated colitis develops.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Almost any antibiotic can cause diarrhea from irritation. Some people are more sensitive to certain antibiotics than others. Once the antibiotic is stopped, the diarrhea will stop.
Diarrhea due to infection is different. People normally have many bacteria in the bowel that help with digestion. When an antibiotic is given, it may kill most of the bacteria in the bowel. But the bacteria called C. difficile are usually not killed. In rare cases, C. difficile can then grow rapidly because the other bacteria are gone. C. difficile can produce a toxin that affects the lining of the intestine and causes the diarrhea. These cases of diarrhea may occur during antibiotic use or even months afterward. Stopping the antibiotic usually won't stop this type of diarrhea.
Most of the time, diarrhea from antibiotics is a mild condition with few problems. But diarrhea can lead to dehydration and salt imbalances. With severe diarrhea due to C. difficile, other complications are possible. These include severe enlargement of the bowel or the formation of a hole in the bowel. Either can be life threatening
Diarrhea caused by antibiotics involves the passage of frequent, loose stools along with a variety of other symptoms.
What is going on in the body?
One possible side effect of taking antibiotics is diarrhea. Most antibiotics have the ability to cause diarrhea in some people. Sometimes the antibiotic irritates the bowel, and that causes the diarrhea. At other times, the antibiotic can make a bacterial infection more likely. The bacterial infection itself then causes the diarrhea. This is the case when antibiotic-associated colitis develops.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Almost any antibiotic can cause diarrhea from irritation. Some people are more sensitive to certain antibiotics than others. Once the antibiotic is stopped, the diarrhea will stop.
Diarrhea due to infection is different. People normally have many bacteria in the bowel that help with digestion. When an antibiotic is given, it may kill most of the bacteria in the bowel. But the bacteria called C. difficile are usually not killed. In rare cases, C. difficile can then grow rapidly because the other bacteria are gone. C. difficile can produce a toxin that affects the lining of the intestine and causes the diarrhea. These cases of diarrhea may occur during antibiotic use or even months afterward. Stopping the antibiotic usually won't stop this type of diarrhea.
Most of the time, diarrhea from antibiotics is a mild condition with few problems. But diarrhea can lead to dehydration and salt imbalances. With severe diarrhea due to C. difficile, other complications are possible. These include severe enlargement of the bowel or the formation of a hole in the bowel. Either can be life threatening
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury,ACL Injury
The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a band of fibrous tissue that provides support to the knee joint. It keeps the tibia from slipping forward on the femur. The tibia is one of the bones in the lower leg. The femur is the thighbone. An ACL injury occurs when the ligament tears.
What are the causes and risks of the injury?
In ACL injuries, the knee may be twisted or extended beyond its normal range of motion. Lack of muscle conditioning and poor coordination are risk factors. Wearing the wrong shoes for the type of athletic field, such as cleats on artificial turf, can increase the risk. Skiers whose bindings are too tight are also at risk.
The anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) is a band of fibrous tissue that provides support to the knee joint. It keeps the tibia from slipping forward on the femur. The tibia is one of the bones in the lower leg. The femur is the thighbone. An ACL injury occurs when the ligament tears.
What are the causes and risks of the injury?
In ACL injuries, the knee may be twisted or extended beyond its normal range of motion. Lack of muscle conditioning and poor coordination are risk factors. Wearing the wrong shoes for the type of athletic field, such as cleats on artificial turf, can increase the risk. Skiers whose bindings are too tight are also at risk.
Chondromalacia Patellae
Patello-Femoral Pain Syndrome, Patello-Femoral Stress Syndrome, Anterior Knee Pain, CMP
Chondromalacia patella (CMP) is a syndrome involving discomfort at the front of the knee. It is associated with irritation or wear on the underside of the kneecap, or patella.
What is going on in the body?
Normally, the cartilage on the underside of the kneecap glides smoothly over the surface of the thighbone, or femur. The cartilage may become soft or rough due to the normal aging process, overuse, or injury.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Possible causes of CMP include:
# overuse of the knee, such as running or exercising beyond tolerance
# increased pressure between the kneecap and thighbone, such as deep knee bending
# bruising or fracture of the kneecap
# lack of alignment of the legs, with knock knees. A person with knock knees has an inward curving of the legs so that the knees touch.
# improper tracking of the kneecap due to a complete or partial dislocation
# outward rotation of the lower leg in relation to the thigh
Chondromalacia patella (CMP) is a syndrome involving discomfort at the front of the knee. It is associated with irritation or wear on the underside of the kneecap, or patella.
What is going on in the body?
Normally, the cartilage on the underside of the kneecap glides smoothly over the surface of the thighbone, or femur. The cartilage may become soft or rough due to the normal aging process, overuse, or injury.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Possible causes of CMP include:
# overuse of the knee, such as running or exercising beyond tolerance
# increased pressure between the kneecap and thighbone, such as deep knee bending
# bruising or fracture of the kneecap
# lack of alignment of the legs, with knock knees. A person with knock knees has an inward curving of the legs so that the knees touch.
# improper tracking of the kneecap due to a complete or partial dislocation
# outward rotation of the lower leg in relation to the thigh
Anoscopy
Anoscopy
An anoscopy is a procedure in which a small tube is inserted into the anus. This allows a doctor to see the inside of the anus and anal canal.
Who is a candidate for the test?
An anoscopy may be ordered for persons who have pain in the rectum or anus. It can be ordered if the person's doctor suspects hemorrhoids or other problems in the anus. The test may also be done to check for anal fissures, which are abnormal openings between the anus and the skin.
How is the test performed?
The doctor first does a digital rectal exam. This is done by inserting a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum. The anoscope is a tube-shaped optical device designed just for this test. It has a light that lets the doctor see inside the anal canal. If an abnormal area is seen, a piece of tissue can be removed for testing in the laboratory. This small sample of tissue is called a biopsy.
An anoscopy is a procedure in which a small tube is inserted into the anus. This allows a doctor to see the inside of the anus and anal canal.
Who is a candidate for the test?
An anoscopy may be ordered for persons who have pain in the rectum or anus. It can be ordered if the person's doctor suspects hemorrhoids or other problems in the anus. The test may also be done to check for anal fissures, which are abnormal openings between the anus and the skin.
How is the test performed?
The doctor first does a digital rectal exam. This is done by inserting a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum. The anoscope is a tube-shaped optical device designed just for this test. It has a light that lets the doctor see inside the anal canal. If an abnormal area is seen, a piece of tissue can be removed for testing in the laboratory. This small sample of tissue is called a biopsy.
Adrenal Biopsy
Adrenal Gland Biopsy, Adrenal Biopsy
There are two adrenal glands in the body, one on top of each kidney. These glands produce a variety of hormones that affect almost all of the body's functions. An adrenal biopsy involves taking a sample of tissue, usually from only one adrenal gland.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
An adrenal biopsy may be done when an abnormal growth or mass is seen in one, or rarely both, of the adrenal glands. This growth or mass may be a tumor or just an infection. The adrenal glands can usually be seen only during special X-ray tests, such as an abdominal CT scan.
How is the procedure performed?
There are two ways to do an adrenal biopsy. With the first method, a doctor inserts a needle through the skin of the back into the adrenal gland, while he or she looks at live images from a CT scan or other X-ray. Local anesthesia is used to prevent the person from feeling pain. A medicine to relax the person may also be given if needed. Once a tissue sample has been obtained, the needle is removed, and a bandage is placed over the puncture site.
An adrenal biopsy may also be done using surgery, under general anesthesia. A cut is made into the back or abdomen, and the surgeon looks at the gland directly. A piece of the gland can then be removed and sent to the lab. The lab often analyzes the piece of tissue while the person is still asleep. If the tissue turns out to be cancer, surgery can then be done right away to avoid a second operation in the future
There are two adrenal glands in the body, one on top of each kidney. These glands produce a variety of hormones that affect almost all of the body's functions. An adrenal biopsy involves taking a sample of tissue, usually from only one adrenal gland.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
An adrenal biopsy may be done when an abnormal growth or mass is seen in one, or rarely both, of the adrenal glands. This growth or mass may be a tumor or just an infection. The adrenal glands can usually be seen only during special X-ray tests, such as an abdominal CT scan.
How is the procedure performed?
There are two ways to do an adrenal biopsy. With the first method, a doctor inserts a needle through the skin of the back into the adrenal gland, while he or she looks at live images from a CT scan or other X-ray. Local anesthesia is used to prevent the person from feeling pain. A medicine to relax the person may also be given if needed. Once a tissue sample has been obtained, the needle is removed, and a bandage is placed over the puncture site.
An adrenal biopsy may also be done using surgery, under general anesthesia. A cut is made into the back or abdomen, and the surgeon looks at the gland directly. A piece of the gland can then be removed and sent to the lab. The lab often analyzes the piece of tissue while the person is still asleep. If the tissue turns out to be cancer, surgery can then be done right away to avoid a second operation in the future
Teenage Pregnancy
Adolescent Pregnancy, Teenage Pregnancy
Teenage pregnancy is a pregnancy that occurs in an adolescent. An adolescent is a female who has reached puberty and is 19 years old or younger. Puberty is the stage of adolescence when a girl can sexually reproduce.
What is going on in the body?
A young woman can become pregnant even before her first menstrual cycle. Ovulation, release of an egg from the ovary, may occur before the first period. In the absence of birth control, the egg can become fertilized.
Penetration does not have to occur for a teenager to become pregnant. Sperm in the area of the external vulva can cause pregnancy. Teens need to understand a woman's body and how it functions before they become sexually active.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The ultimate cause of teenage pregnancy is unprotected intercourse. This results in fertilization of the egg by the sperm. Risk factors for teenage pregnancy include the following:
# delinquency
# depression
# exposure to child abuse
# high-risk behaviors, such as smoking, alcohol use, and drug abuse
# limited job opportunities
# low academic interest and achievement
# poverty
# previous unplanned teenage pregnancy
# sexual abuse
# single-parent homes
# social isolation
# stress
# trouble in school or with the law
Teenage pregnancy is a pregnancy that occurs in an adolescent. An adolescent is a female who has reached puberty and is 19 years old or younger. Puberty is the stage of adolescence when a girl can sexually reproduce.
What is going on in the body?
A young woman can become pregnant even before her first menstrual cycle. Ovulation, release of an egg from the ovary, may occur before the first period. In the absence of birth control, the egg can become fertilized.
Penetration does not have to occur for a teenager to become pregnant. Sperm in the area of the external vulva can cause pregnancy. Teens need to understand a woman's body and how it functions before they become sexually active.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The ultimate cause of teenage pregnancy is unprotected intercourse. This results in fertilization of the egg by the sperm. Risk factors for teenage pregnancy include the following:
# delinquency
# depression
# exposure to child abuse
# high-risk behaviors, such as smoking, alcohol use, and drug abuse
# limited job opportunities
# low academic interest and achievement
# poverty
# previous unplanned teenage pregnancy
# sexual abuse
# single-parent homes
# social isolation
# stress
# trouble in school or with the law
Frozen Shoulder
Adhesive Capsulitis, Frozen Shoulder
Frozen shoulder usually occurs after a person injures the shoulder and does not move it for a period of time because of pain.
What is going on in the body?
When the shoulder is immobilized by pain, physical changes take place within the shoulder joint. Adhesions, or abnormal bands of tissue, grow between the bones of the shoulder joint and severely limit movement. In addition, the normal synovial fluid found in the shoulder joint begins to disappear, causing further pain and restricted motion.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
This condition can occur after an injury to the shoulder, chest, or head. Any injury that prevents normal shoulder or arm movement may result in a frozen shoulder. Other risks for frozen shoulder include:
# heart attack
# chest surgery, such as open heart surgery
# breast surgery, such as a modified mastectomy for breast cancer
# brain surgery, which may follow head injury
# Type I diabetes
# hypothyroidism
# Parkinson's disease
Frozen shoulder is most common in middle-aged women or people who have depression
Frozen shoulder usually occurs after a person injures the shoulder and does not move it for a period of time because of pain.
What is going on in the body?
When the shoulder is immobilized by pain, physical changes take place within the shoulder joint. Adhesions, or abnormal bands of tissue, grow between the bones of the shoulder joint and severely limit movement. In addition, the normal synovial fluid found in the shoulder joint begins to disappear, causing further pain and restricted motion.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
This condition can occur after an injury to the shoulder, chest, or head. Any injury that prevents normal shoulder or arm movement may result in a frozen shoulder. Other risks for frozen shoulder include:
# heart attack
# chest surgery, such as open heart surgery
# breast surgery, such as a modified mastectomy for breast cancer
# brain surgery, which may follow head injury
# Type I diabetes
# hypothyroidism
# Parkinson's disease
Frozen shoulder is most common in middle-aged women or people who have depression
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
ADHD, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, is a disorder in which an individual consistently shows certain behaviors over time. The three categories for these behaviors are inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
What is going on in the body?
In people who have ADHD, the areas of the brain that control attention use less glucose than the brains of other people. This indicates that the areas are less active. The lower activity level seems to cause inattention. No one knows for sure why these brain areas are less active.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
No one knows the exact cause of ADHD. Most experts believe that the following factors may play a role in causing ADHD:
# environmental toxins, such as lead
# genetics
# smoking or alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy
# use of illegal drugs, such as cocaine, by the mother during pregnancy
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, is a disorder in which an individual consistently shows certain behaviors over time. The three categories for these behaviors are inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
What is going on in the body?
In people who have ADHD, the areas of the brain that control attention use less glucose than the brains of other people. This indicates that the areas are less active. The lower activity level seems to cause inattention. No one knows for sure why these brain areas are less active.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
No one knows the exact cause of ADHD. Most experts believe that the following factors may play a role in causing ADHD:
# environmental toxins, such as lead
# genetics
# smoking or alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy
# use of illegal drugs, such as cocaine, by the mother during pregnancy
Adenoid Removal
Adenoidectomy, Removal of the Adenoid Glands, Adenoid Removal
This procedure involves surgically removing the adenoid glands from the nasopharynx, which is the area between the nasal airway and back of the throat. It is usually performed with a tonsillectomy, or surgical removal of the tonsils.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
This surgery may be recommended for persons with:
# enlarged adenoids, or adenoidal hypertrophy
# excessive snoring
# difficulty breathing through the nose
# a sleep disorder known as sleep apnea, which causes episodes of not breathing during sleep
# chronic ear infections, known as chronic otitis media
# chronic or repeated tonsillitis, or inflammation of the tonsils
# chronic sinusitis
How is the procedure performed?
The surgery is performed using general anesthesia. This involves putting the person to sleep with medications. A breathing tube, known as an endotracheal tube, is inserted into the mouth and throat. Then the adenoid tissue is removed, and bleeding is controlled with pressure. The entire procedure takes about a half-hour
This procedure involves surgically removing the adenoid glands from the nasopharynx, which is the area between the nasal airway and back of the throat. It is usually performed with a tonsillectomy, or surgical removal of the tonsils.
Who is a candidate for the procedure?
This surgery may be recommended for persons with:
# enlarged adenoids, or adenoidal hypertrophy
# excessive snoring
# difficulty breathing through the nose
# a sleep disorder known as sleep apnea, which causes episodes of not breathing during sleep
# chronic ear infections, known as chronic otitis media
# chronic or repeated tonsillitis, or inflammation of the tonsils
# chronic sinusitis
How is the procedure performed?
The surgery is performed using general anesthesia. This involves putting the person to sleep with medications. A breathing tube, known as an endotracheal tube, is inserted into the mouth and throat. Then the adenoid tissue is removed, and bleeding is controlled with pressure. The entire procedure takes about a half-hour
Adenoidal Hypertrophy
Enlarged Adenoids, Adenoidal Hypertrophy
Adenoidal hypertrophy refers to the increased size of the adenoids. These are the two infection-fighting organs at the back of the nose and above the tonsils.
What is going on in the body?
The adenoids, along with the tonsils, help prevent agents such as bacteria and viruses from entering the body. The adenoids are made up of a group of blood cells that create antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that neutralize foreign substances in the body. When infection or inflammation occurs, the adenoids can enlarge. Since they are seated at the back of the nasal cavity, the swollen adenoids can block airflow through the nose.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The exact cause of enlarged adenoids is not always clear. Most studies point to chronic infection of the upper respiratory tract. Allergies may also cause the adenoids to enlarge. Adenoid enlargement is more common in children than adults
Adenoidal hypertrophy refers to the increased size of the adenoids. These are the two infection-fighting organs at the back of the nose and above the tonsils.
What is going on in the body?
The adenoids, along with the tonsils, help prevent agents such as bacteria and viruses from entering the body. The adenoids are made up of a group of blood cells that create antibodies. Antibodies are proteins that neutralize foreign substances in the body. When infection or inflammation occurs, the adenoids can enlarge. Since they are seated at the back of the nasal cavity, the swollen adenoids can block airflow through the nose.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
The exact cause of enlarged adenoids is not always clear. Most studies point to chronic infection of the upper respiratory tract. Allergies may also cause the adenoids to enlarge. Adenoid enlargement is more common in children than adults
Adenocarcinoma of the Small Intestine
Adenocarcinoma of the Small Intestine
Adenocarcinoma of the small intestine is a form of cancer that occurs in the part of the intestine that descends from the stomach. It is a rare form of cancer.
What is going on in the body?
The small intestine plays a key role in the digestion of foods. Many nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine as food passes through it. Adenocarcinoma occurs in the tissues that line the small intestine. It causes the cells in these tissues to grow and multiply out of control. These cells form a tumor along the wall of the intestine. This tumor then begins to invade the tissues around it.
In time, the tumor will grow through the intestinal wall. The tumor then goes on to invade structures around the intestine. Cancer cells can break off from the tumor and metastasize. This means the cancer is spread through the bloodstream. Cancer cells can also spread through the system that drains into lymph nodes.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
The risk factors for this type of cancer are not well defined. Diet may play a role, especially a diet high in nitrates. Some other risk factors may include:
# celiac disease, in which the body is unable to absorb certain foods
# Crohn disease, an inflammation of the bowel
# a history of adenocarcinoma elsewhere in the body
# a history of colorectal cancer
# immunodeficiency disorders that lead to a weakened immune system
# inherited gastrointestinal syndromes
# older age
Adenocarcinoma of the small intestine is a form of cancer that occurs in the part of the intestine that descends from the stomach. It is a rare form of cancer.
What is going on in the body?
The small intestine plays a key role in the digestion of foods. Many nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine as food passes through it. Adenocarcinoma occurs in the tissues that line the small intestine. It causes the cells in these tissues to grow and multiply out of control. These cells form a tumor along the wall of the intestine. This tumor then begins to invade the tissues around it.
In time, the tumor will grow through the intestinal wall. The tumor then goes on to invade structures around the intestine. Cancer cells can break off from the tumor and metastasize. This means the cancer is spread through the bloodstream. Cancer cells can also spread through the system that drains into lymph nodes.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
The risk factors for this type of cancer are not well defined. Diet may play a role, especially a diet high in nitrates. Some other risk factors may include:
# celiac disease, in which the body is unable to absorb certain foods
# Crohn disease, an inflammation of the bowel
# a history of adenocarcinoma elsewhere in the body
# a history of colorectal cancer
# immunodeficiency disorders that lead to a weakened immune system
# inherited gastrointestinal syndromes
# older age
Prostate Cancer
Adenocarcinoma of the Prostate, Prostate Cancer,
Prostate cancer is a tumor that grows in the prostate gland in men. The prostate gland is part of the reproductive system. It stores seminal fluid, the substance that mixes with sperm to form semen.
What is going on in the body?
Normally, the prostate is a firm, walnut-shaped gland at the base of a man's bladder. It surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. A man with prostate cancer has a tumor in the prostate gland. In some cases, prostate cancer can grow slowly for many years. Other times, it may grow rapidly and spread swiftly to other parts of the body. It may also spread its cells throughout the lymph system or bloodstream and along nerve pathways.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
No one knows what causes prostate cancer. Hormones, such as testosterone, control the growth of the prostate gland. They may contribute to prostate cancer. Viruses or chronic infections may contribute to prostate cancer. Researchers have recently identified a gene that is linked to some cases of prostate cancer. So far, prostate cancer has not been linked to common cancer-causing substances in the environment.
Following are some of the risk factors.
# Advanced age. Prostate cancer is seen mostly in men over the age of 55.
# Diet. Fruits, vegetables, and fatty fish may lower a man's risk for prostate cancer. A high fat diet may increase the risk.
# Ethnic background. Prostate cancer occurs most often in African and northern European ethnic groups. It is less common in American Indian and Asian men.
# Family history of cancer. A man's risk is higher if his father or brother had prostate cancer.
Men who have had a vasectomy, who smoke, or who have been exposed to a metal called cadmium may also be at an increased risk
Prostate cancer is a tumor that grows in the prostate gland in men. The prostate gland is part of the reproductive system. It stores seminal fluid, the substance that mixes with sperm to form semen.
What is going on in the body?
Normally, the prostate is a firm, walnut-shaped gland at the base of a man's bladder. It surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. A man with prostate cancer has a tumor in the prostate gland. In some cases, prostate cancer can grow slowly for many years. Other times, it may grow rapidly and spread swiftly to other parts of the body. It may also spread its cells throughout the lymph system or bloodstream and along nerve pathways.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
No one knows what causes prostate cancer. Hormones, such as testosterone, control the growth of the prostate gland. They may contribute to prostate cancer. Viruses or chronic infections may contribute to prostate cancer. Researchers have recently identified a gene that is linked to some cases of prostate cancer. So far, prostate cancer has not been linked to common cancer-causing substances in the environment.
Following are some of the risk factors.
# Advanced age. Prostate cancer is seen mostly in men over the age of 55.
# Diet. Fruits, vegetables, and fatty fish may lower a man's risk for prostate cancer. A high fat diet may increase the risk.
# Ethnic background. Prostate cancer occurs most often in African and northern European ethnic groups. It is less common in American Indian and Asian men.
# Family history of cancer. A man's risk is higher if his father or brother had prostate cancer.
Men who have had a vasectomy, who smoke, or who have been exposed to a metal called cadmium may also be at an increased risk
Adenocarcinoma
Adenocarcinoma
Adenocarcinoma is the name of a broad category of cancers. This type of cancer occurs in cells that line organs such as the colon, lung, and breast.
What is going on in the body?
Structures within the body are covered with layers of tissue. One of these layers of tissue is called the epithelium. It covers the inside of hollow organs and milk ducts in the breast. When cancer occurs in one of the cells of the epithelium, it is called an adenocarcinoma. The cancer is also categorized by the kind of tissue from which it arose, such as breast or lung.
Cancer occurs when a cell undergoes changes that make it grow and multiply uncontrollably. The abnormal cells grow into a mass, which is called a tumor. Cancer cells from the tumor can break off and metastasize. This means that they spread to other parts of the body. New tumors may then form. In addition to spreading, adenocarcinoma also destroys the tissue around it.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
Smoking increases the risk for almost every kind of cancer. There may be other risk factors for adenocarcinomas in different organ sites. Each site may have different factors. For example, hormone replacement therapy may increase the risk of uterine adenocarcinoma. Colon adenocarcinoma may be related to a diet high in fat or low in fiber. In the same way, the risk for adenocarcinoma of the small intestine increases with a history of Crohn disease.
Adenocarcinoma is the name of a broad category of cancers. This type of cancer occurs in cells that line organs such as the colon, lung, and breast.
What is going on in the body?
Structures within the body are covered with layers of tissue. One of these layers of tissue is called the epithelium. It covers the inside of hollow organs and milk ducts in the breast. When cancer occurs in one of the cells of the epithelium, it is called an adenocarcinoma. The cancer is also categorized by the kind of tissue from which it arose, such as breast or lung.
Cancer occurs when a cell undergoes changes that make it grow and multiply uncontrollably. The abnormal cells grow into a mass, which is called a tumor. Cancer cells from the tumor can break off and metastasize. This means that they spread to other parts of the body. New tumors may then form. In addition to spreading, adenocarcinoma also destroys the tissue around it.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
Smoking increases the risk for almost every kind of cancer. There may be other risk factors for adenocarcinomas in different organ sites. Each site may have different factors. For example, hormone replacement therapy may increase the risk of uterine adenocarcinoma. Colon adenocarcinoma may be related to a diet high in fat or low in fiber. In the same way, the risk for adenocarcinoma of the small intestine increases with a history of Crohn disease.
Food Additives
Artificial Colors, Preservatives, Additives, Artificial Flavors, Food Additives
Additives are substances that are added to foods. They may be added purpose, such as when vitamins are added to some foods to replace those lost when the food is processed. On the other hand, some drugs given to animals and chemicals used on crops are examples of additives that get into food by accident. Metals from cooking utensils can also leach into food.
Information
Additives are used in foods for 5 main reasons:
To control food texture. Emulsifiers, stabilizers, and thickeners can give food an even texture. They help keep ingredients and flavors blended in the product. Some examples of these are lecithin, mono and diglycerides, guar gum and carrageenan. An example of a food they are found in is peanut butter. Emulsifiers help keep the peanuts and oil from separating.
To improve nutritional value. When nutrients are added to foods to replace those that were lost during processing, the foods are said to be enriched. Vitamins and minerals, as well as fiber, are often added to enrich foods in this way. For example, many of the B vitamins are lost as whole-wheat flour is being refined into white flour, so they are added back in.
When nutrients are added that were never in the food, the foods are said to be fortified. For example, vitamins A and D are added to milk to fortify it. This process of adding nutrients to foods has helped reduce malnutrition.
To maintain freshness and safety. Some additives are called preservatives. These are used to prevent spoiling in foods that may be exposed to air, mold, and bacteria. For example, antioxidants, such as vitamin E, are added to fats and oils to prevent them from becoming rancid. They also are used in baked goods, cereals, processed foods, and salad dressing to prevent spoiling and discoloration. Other examples are BHA and BHT. The US Food and Drug Administration, known as the FDA, has classed some food additives as "generally recognized as safe." This is also known as GRAS . BHA and BHT are classed GRAS. Other preservatives include:
# citric acid
# sulfites
# calcium propionate
# sodium nitrate
A small percentage of the population is allergic to sulfites. The FDA requires that labels clearly show when packaged and processed foods contain more than 10 parts/million of sulfites.
To help foods rise and to control the acid-base balance of food. Leavening agents cause baked goods, such as bread, to rise. Other additives, such as yeast and sodium bicarbonate, help control the acidity and alkalinity of foods, which affect the flavor, taste, and color.
To improve flavor and color. Natural and artificial colors and flavors enhance the appearance and taste of certain foods. Common examples include
# ginger
# fructose
# aspartame
# FD&C Red No. 40
# monosodium glutamate, also known as MSG
# annatto
MSG is a well-known flavor enhancer. In the past, people have questioned the safety of MSG. The FDA has considered MSG as GRAS. Some people are allergic to the flavor enhancer. These people should always read ingredient lists and be careful of ordering food in restaurants, especially Asian ones.
There are 33 colors approved for use in foods. Only seven of them are man-made. The push is towards using more natural coloring agents. The only color that has been known to cause allergic reactions, in a very small amount of people, is Yellow No. 5.
The FDA regulated the use of food additives. Before the FDA approves the use of a particular food additive, studies must be conducted that prove the substances are safe in large doses when fed to animals. Even then, these substances can only be used at levels 100 times lower than those that have been shown to cause harmful effects in animals.
Many additives are on the FDA GRAS list. These substances have been widely used for a long time without known problems. A few examples of the 700 items on the GRAS list include salt, sugar, guar gum, and vinegar.
Food additives are quite safe for most people, but some people may be allergic or sensitive to certain additives. Because of this, food manufacturers are required to list additives on food labels. People who know they are allergic or sensitive to certain things should always read the food labels and avoid any foods that may not be healthy for them
Additives are substances that are added to foods. They may be added purpose, such as when vitamins are added to some foods to replace those lost when the food is processed. On the other hand, some drugs given to animals and chemicals used on crops are examples of additives that get into food by accident. Metals from cooking utensils can also leach into food.
Information
Additives are used in foods for 5 main reasons:
To control food texture. Emulsifiers, stabilizers, and thickeners can give food an even texture. They help keep ingredients and flavors blended in the product. Some examples of these are lecithin, mono and diglycerides, guar gum and carrageenan. An example of a food they are found in is peanut butter. Emulsifiers help keep the peanuts and oil from separating.
To improve nutritional value. When nutrients are added to foods to replace those that were lost during processing, the foods are said to be enriched. Vitamins and minerals, as well as fiber, are often added to enrich foods in this way. For example, many of the B vitamins are lost as whole-wheat flour is being refined into white flour, so they are added back in.
When nutrients are added that were never in the food, the foods are said to be fortified. For example, vitamins A and D are added to milk to fortify it. This process of adding nutrients to foods has helped reduce malnutrition.
To maintain freshness and safety. Some additives are called preservatives. These are used to prevent spoiling in foods that may be exposed to air, mold, and bacteria. For example, antioxidants, such as vitamin E, are added to fats and oils to prevent them from becoming rancid. They also are used in baked goods, cereals, processed foods, and salad dressing to prevent spoiling and discoloration. Other examples are BHA and BHT. The US Food and Drug Administration, known as the FDA, has classed some food additives as "generally recognized as safe." This is also known as GRAS . BHA and BHT are classed GRAS. Other preservatives include:
# citric acid
# sulfites
# calcium propionate
# sodium nitrate
A small percentage of the population is allergic to sulfites. The FDA requires that labels clearly show when packaged and processed foods contain more than 10 parts/million of sulfites.
To help foods rise and to control the acid-base balance of food. Leavening agents cause baked goods, such as bread, to rise. Other additives, such as yeast and sodium bicarbonate, help control the acidity and alkalinity of foods, which affect the flavor, taste, and color.
To improve flavor and color. Natural and artificial colors and flavors enhance the appearance and taste of certain foods. Common examples include
# ginger
# fructose
# aspartame
# FD&C Red No. 40
# monosodium glutamate, also known as MSG
# annatto
MSG is a well-known flavor enhancer. In the past, people have questioned the safety of MSG. The FDA has considered MSG as GRAS. Some people are allergic to the flavor enhancer. These people should always read ingredient lists and be careful of ordering food in restaurants, especially Asian ones.
There are 33 colors approved for use in foods. Only seven of them are man-made. The push is towards using more natural coloring agents. The only color that has been known to cause allergic reactions, in a very small amount of people, is Yellow No. 5.
The FDA regulated the use of food additives. Before the FDA approves the use of a particular food additive, studies must be conducted that prove the substances are safe in large doses when fed to animals. Even then, these substances can only be used at levels 100 times lower than those that have been shown to cause harmful effects in animals.
Many additives are on the FDA GRAS list. These substances have been widely used for a long time without known problems. A few examples of the 700 items on the GRAS list include salt, sugar, guar gum, and vinegar.
Food additives are quite safe for most people, but some people may be allergic or sensitive to certain additives. Because of this, food manufacturers are required to list additives on food labels. People who know they are allergic or sensitive to certain things should always read the food labels and avoid any foods that may not be healthy for them
Addison's Disease
Primary Adrenocortical Insufficiency, Primary Adrenal Failure, Hypocortisolism, Addison's Disease
Addison disease occurs when the adrenal glands are no longer able to produce certain hormones needed for life, such as cortisol and aldosterone.
What is going on in the body?
There are two adrenal glands in the body, one on top of each kidney. They produce two hormones: cortisol and aldosterone.
Cortisol
Cortisol is a type of hormone called a glucocorticoid. It affects almost every organ and tissue in the body. Experts believe cortisol may have hundreds of effects, but its main job is to help the body respond to stress. Other vital tasks include the following.
# It helps maintain blood pressure, heart function, and blood vessel function.
# It helps slow the immune system's inflammation response.
# It helps balance the effects of insulin in breaking down glucose for energy.
# It helps control the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
Cortisol is vital to health, so the body maintains a precise balance. As with many other hormones, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland are key to this control.
Aldosterone
Aldosterone is a type of hormone called a mineralcorticoid. It helps with the following functions:
# maintains blood pressure
# maintains water and salt balance in the body by helping the kidneys hang on to sodium and get rid of potassium
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
Addison disease is a rare disorder that affects only about 1 in every 100,000 people. It occurs in all age groups, and affects both men and women equally. Addison disease may be caused by either a disorder of the adrenal glands themselves, which is called primary adrenal insufficiency. Or, it may be caused by inadequate secretion of ACTH by the pituitary gland. In primary adrenal insufficiency, an autoimmune disorder that makes the person's own immune system attack and destroy the outer layer of the adrenal glands, called the cortex, is often at fault. When at least 90 percent of the cortex has been destroyed, adrenal insufficiency occurs. Experts believe causes for this type may include:
# an inherited syndrome called polyendocrine deficiency syndrome, type 1 or type 2
# tuberculosis, called TB
# chronic infections, mainly fungal infections
# cancer that has spread from somewhere else in the body
# amyloidosis
# surgical removal of the adrenal glands
Secondary adrenal insufficiency is due to a lack of ACTH, which causes the adrenal glands to produce less cortisol. It does not affect production of aldosterone. Causes of this type of insufficiency include:
# surgical removal of the benign, known as noncancerous, tumors of the pituitary gland linked with Cushing disease. These tumors produce excess ACTH, and when they are removed, the body is unable to adapt quickly
# hypopituitarism, due to tumors, infections, loss of blood flow to the pituitary, radiation for pituitary tumors, or surgical removal of parts of the hypothalamus or the pituitary gland
Addison disease occurs when the adrenal glands are no longer able to produce certain hormones needed for life, such as cortisol and aldosterone.
What is going on in the body?
There are two adrenal glands in the body, one on top of each kidney. They produce two hormones: cortisol and aldosterone.
Cortisol
Cortisol is a type of hormone called a glucocorticoid. It affects almost every organ and tissue in the body. Experts believe cortisol may have hundreds of effects, but its main job is to help the body respond to stress. Other vital tasks include the following.
# It helps maintain blood pressure, heart function, and blood vessel function.
# It helps slow the immune system's inflammation response.
# It helps balance the effects of insulin in breaking down glucose for energy.
# It helps control the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.
Cortisol is vital to health, so the body maintains a precise balance. As with many other hormones, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland are key to this control.
Aldosterone
Aldosterone is a type of hormone called a mineralcorticoid. It helps with the following functions:
# maintains blood pressure
# maintains water and salt balance in the body by helping the kidneys hang on to sodium and get rid of potassium
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
Addison disease is a rare disorder that affects only about 1 in every 100,000 people. It occurs in all age groups, and affects both men and women equally. Addison disease may be caused by either a disorder of the adrenal glands themselves, which is called primary adrenal insufficiency. Or, it may be caused by inadequate secretion of ACTH by the pituitary gland. In primary adrenal insufficiency, an autoimmune disorder that makes the person's own immune system attack and destroy the outer layer of the adrenal glands, called the cortex, is often at fault. When at least 90 percent of the cortex has been destroyed, adrenal insufficiency occurs. Experts believe causes for this type may include:
# an inherited syndrome called polyendocrine deficiency syndrome, type 1 or type 2
# tuberculosis, called TB
# chronic infections, mainly fungal infections
# cancer that has spread from somewhere else in the body
# amyloidosis
# surgical removal of the adrenal glands
Secondary adrenal insufficiency is due to a lack of ACTH, which causes the adrenal glands to produce less cortisol. It does not affect production of aldosterone. Causes of this type of insufficiency include:
# surgical removal of the benign, known as noncancerous, tumors of the pituitary gland linked with Cushing disease. These tumors produce excess ACTH, and when they are removed, the body is unable to adapt quickly
# hypopituitarism, due to tumors, infections, loss of blood flow to the pituitary, radiation for pituitary tumors, or surgical removal of parts of the hypothalamus or the pituitary gland
Attention Deficit Disorder, ADD
Attention Deficit Disorder, ADD
Attention deficit disorder, which is also called ADD, is a disorder in which a person shows a certain pattern of behavior over time. This pattern includes inattention and impulsivity. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, adds hyperactivity to the other behaviors.
What is going on in the body?
In people who have ADD, the brain areas that control attention use less glucose than the brains of other people use. This indicates that the areas are less active. The lower activity level seems to cause inattention. No one knows for sure why these brain areas are less active.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
No one knows the exact cause of ADD. Most experts believe that the following factors may play a role in causing ADD and ADHD:
# environmental toxins, such as lead
# genetics
# smoking or alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy
# use of illegal drugs, such as cocaine, by the mother during pregnancy
ADD is thought to affect 5% to 10% of school-age children. Boys are 10 times more likely than girls to be affected by ADD
Attention deficit disorder, which is also called ADD, is a disorder in which a person shows a certain pattern of behavior over time. This pattern includes inattention and impulsivity. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or ADHD, adds hyperactivity to the other behaviors.
What is going on in the body?
In people who have ADD, the brain areas that control attention use less glucose than the brains of other people use. This indicates that the areas are less active. The lower activity level seems to cause inattention. No one knows for sure why these brain areas are less active.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
No one knows the exact cause of ADD. Most experts believe that the following factors may play a role in causing ADD and ADHD:
# environmental toxins, such as lead
# genetics
# smoking or alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy
# use of illegal drugs, such as cocaine, by the mother during pregnancy
ADD is thought to affect 5% to 10% of school-age children. Boys are 10 times more likely than girls to be affected by ADD
Acute Subdural Hematoma
Acute Subdural Hematoma
An acute subdural hematoma is an accumulation of blood, or a hematoma, inside the skull. It is located between the dura, the fibrous covering of the brain, and the brain itself. An acute subdural hematoma occurs when blood leaks into the space between the dura and the brain. There is very little extra room within the skull, so the build-up of blood puts pressure on the brain.
What are the causes and risks of the injury?
Persons traveling at any increased speed are at risk for hematoma whenever the head is struck. During impact, the brain moves around inside the skull. Veins may tear, spilling blood into the subdural space. As people age, brains shrink slightly, so veins are stretched. Thus, the elderly are more susceptible to this type of injury. Other conditions that put people at risk for subdural hematoma include:
# alcoholism
# diabetes
# epilepsy
An acute subdural hematoma is an accumulation of blood, or a hematoma, inside the skull. It is located between the dura, the fibrous covering of the brain, and the brain itself. An acute subdural hematoma occurs when blood leaks into the space between the dura and the brain. There is very little extra room within the skull, so the build-up of blood puts pressure on the brain.
What are the causes and risks of the injury?
Persons traveling at any increased speed are at risk for hematoma whenever the head is struck. During impact, the brain moves around inside the skull. Veins may tear, spilling blood into the subdural space. As people age, brains shrink slightly, so veins are stretched. Thus, the elderly are more susceptible to this type of injury. Other conditions that put people at risk for subdural hematoma include:
# alcoholism
# diabetes
# epilepsy
Acute Prostatitis
Prostate Gland Infection, Acute Prostatitis
Acute bacterial prostatitis is a sudden severe infection of the prostate gland caused by bacteria.
What is going on in the body?
The prostate gland is located at the base of a man's penis. It secretes substances into the semen that aid in fertility. The fluid in the prostate is normally sterile. Bacteria from urine can enter the prostate through the urethra. The urethra is the tube through which urine flows from the bladder to the tip of the penis. These bacteria can multiply and rapidly cause bacterial prostatitis. Acute bacterial prostatitis is almost always accompanied by an infection in the urinary tract from the same organism.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Bacteria commonly found in the intestines are usually responsible for urinary infections in older men. Conditions that make men more prone to urinary infections can contribute to prostatitis. One of these is the blockage of urine flow due to an enlarged prostate gland
Acute bacterial prostatitis is a sudden severe infection of the prostate gland caused by bacteria.
What is going on in the body?
The prostate gland is located at the base of a man's penis. It secretes substances into the semen that aid in fertility. The fluid in the prostate is normally sterile. Bacteria from urine can enter the prostate through the urethra. The urethra is the tube through which urine flows from the bladder to the tip of the penis. These bacteria can multiply and rapidly cause bacterial prostatitis. Acute bacterial prostatitis is almost always accompanied by an infection in the urinary tract from the same organism.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Bacteria commonly found in the intestines are usually responsible for urinary infections in older men. Conditions that make men more prone to urinary infections can contribute to prostatitis. One of these is the blockage of urine flow due to an enlarged prostate gland
Acute Otitis Media
Middle Ear Infection, Acute Otitis Media
Acute otitis media is a bacterial or viral infection of the middle ear.
What is going on in the body?
The three parts of the ear are the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the nasal cavity. The eustachian tube keeps equal ear pressure between the eardrum and the outside of the body. Any secretions formed in the middle ear flow into the nasal cavity through this tube.
Otitis media often begins when a virus, such as the one that causes colds, enters the nose. The virus travels into the eustachian tube and causes it to swell. The virus can also travel up the eustachian tube to the middle ear. When the swollen tube does open, bacteria enter the tube and the middle ear. Bacteria multiply, causing an acute infection.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Otitis media is an infection caused by a virus or bacteria. The following children are at higher risk for this type of infection:
# children in day care
# children under the age of 3 or 4 years
# children who live with smokers
# children who take bottles to bed
# children whose parents had childhood otitis media
# children with chronic allergies or sinusitis
# Native American and Eskimo children
Individuals who have very small or poorly functioning tubes are also at a higher risk for infections. Children with head and face abnormalities often have eustachian tube problems. This includes children with Down syndrome and cleft palate.
Acute otitis media is a bacterial or viral infection of the middle ear.
What is going on in the body?
The three parts of the ear are the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the nasal cavity. The eustachian tube keeps equal ear pressure between the eardrum and the outside of the body. Any secretions formed in the middle ear flow into the nasal cavity through this tube.
Otitis media often begins when a virus, such as the one that causes colds, enters the nose. The virus travels into the eustachian tube and causes it to swell. The virus can also travel up the eustachian tube to the middle ear. When the swollen tube does open, bacteria enter the tube and the middle ear. Bacteria multiply, causing an acute infection.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Otitis media is an infection caused by a virus or bacteria. The following children are at higher risk for this type of infection:
# children in day care
# children under the age of 3 or 4 years
# children who live with smokers
# children who take bottles to bed
# children whose parents had childhood otitis media
# children with chronic allergies or sinusitis
# Native American and Eskimo children
Individuals who have very small or poorly functioning tubes are also at a higher risk for infections. Children with head and face abnormalities often have eustachian tube problems. This includes children with Down syndrome and cleft palate.
Acute Mountain Sickness
Altitude Illness, Acute Mountain Sickness
Acute mountain sickness, or AMS, is a mild, self-limiting form of altitude illness. Altitude illnesses are caused by lack of oxygen as a person climbs to higher altitudes. A more severe form of altitude illness, known as high-altitude cerebral edema or HACE, has much more serious consequences.
What is going on in the body?
As altitude increases, the atmospheric pressure decreases. There are fewer oxygen molecules available. This decrease in oxygen availability affects the body in many ways. The rate and depth of breathing increase. This disturbs the balance between gases in the lungs and the blood. This imbalance causes changes in the distribution of potassium and sodium in the cells. As a result, water is distributed differently between the blood and the tissues. This change in distribution causes the effects of altitude illness.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Acute mountain sickness can happen with steady climbs to higher altitudes. It can be prevented by climbing gradually and getting used to midway altitudes. Some people will have symptoms after rapid climbs from sea level to 8,000 to 10,000 feet. Climbers from sea level to 14,000 feet almost always have symptoms. AMS is more common in younger adults than in older people. Individuals with history of AMS and those with lung diseases are more prone to this condition
Acute mountain sickness, or AMS, is a mild, self-limiting form of altitude illness. Altitude illnesses are caused by lack of oxygen as a person climbs to higher altitudes. A more severe form of altitude illness, known as high-altitude cerebral edema or HACE, has much more serious consequences.
What is going on in the body?
As altitude increases, the atmospheric pressure decreases. There are fewer oxygen molecules available. This decrease in oxygen availability affects the body in many ways. The rate and depth of breathing increase. This disturbs the balance between gases in the lungs and the blood. This imbalance causes changes in the distribution of potassium and sodium in the cells. As a result, water is distributed differently between the blood and the tissues. This change in distribution causes the effects of altitude illness.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
Acute mountain sickness can happen with steady climbs to higher altitudes. It can be prevented by climbing gradually and getting used to midway altitudes. Some people will have symptoms after rapid climbs from sea level to 8,000 to 10,000 feet. Climbers from sea level to 14,000 feet almost always have symptoms. AMS is more common in younger adults than in older people. Individuals with history of AMS and those with lung diseases are more prone to this condition
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia
Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia,ALL
Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is cancer of the lymph cells, a type of white blood cell. While ALL is known as the childhood form of leukemia, 20% of the people who develop the disease are adults.
What is going on in the body?
When the body has an infection, the number of lymph cells often rises sharply. These cells play a role in fighting off infection. When a person has ALL, the lymph cells do not mature enough to do their job. The cells become malignant, and their growth is unchecked. The abnormal cells can build up in the bone marrow, blood, and other tissues.
Generally, the abnormal cells crowd out normal blood cells and cause the following problems:
# anemia, or a low red blood cell count
# bleeding problems due to poorly working blood-clotting cells, called platelets
# loss of normal white blood cell function, which increases the risk of infection
# a need for red blood cell transfusions
Other white blood cells help in immune monitoring and healing. ALL can compromise or even stop all of these functions. The buildup of abnormal lymph cells can enlarge or infiltrate any organ in the body, including lymph nodes and the brain.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
ALL is thought to have many causes, including:
# exposure to radiation
# exposure to toxins
# gene or chromosome abnormalities that are passed on from parent to child
# a poorly working immune system
# viruses that affect the immune system
It is known that people:
# who have AIDS are at higher risk for lymphatic cancers, including ALL.
# who have been treated for other cancers can get ALL. This is called a secondary leukemia.
# who have Down syndrome may be at higher risk for ALL.
Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is cancer of the lymph cells, a type of white blood cell. While ALL is known as the childhood form of leukemia, 20% of the people who develop the disease are adults.
What is going on in the body?
When the body has an infection, the number of lymph cells often rises sharply. These cells play a role in fighting off infection. When a person has ALL, the lymph cells do not mature enough to do their job. The cells become malignant, and their growth is unchecked. The abnormal cells can build up in the bone marrow, blood, and other tissues.
Generally, the abnormal cells crowd out normal blood cells and cause the following problems:
# anemia, or a low red blood cell count
# bleeding problems due to poorly working blood-clotting cells, called platelets
# loss of normal white blood cell function, which increases the risk of infection
# a need for red blood cell transfusions
Other white blood cells help in immune monitoring and healing. ALL can compromise or even stop all of these functions. The buildup of abnormal lymph cells can enlarge or infiltrate any organ in the body, including lymph nodes and the brain.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
ALL is thought to have many causes, including:
# exposure to radiation
# exposure to toxins
# gene or chromosome abnormalities that are passed on from parent to child
# a poorly working immune system
# viruses that affect the immune system
It is known that people:
# who have AIDS are at higher risk for lymphatic cancers, including ALL.
# who have been treated for other cancers can get ALL. This is called a secondary leukemia.
# who have Down syndrome may be at higher risk for ALL.
Acute Interstitial Nephritis
AIN, Acute Interstitial Nephritis
Acute interstitial nephritis is also called AIN. AIN is a condition in which there is damage to the tissue around the filtering unit of the kidney. This can result in a sudden decline in the kidney function.
What is going on in the body?
In AIN, different types of white blood cells invade the filtering system of the kidney. This causes it to swell. The rise in white blood cells is most often a result of an allergic reaction to a medicine. But it may also be caused by some infections. Most people who have AIN recover completely. But sometimes, scarring results. If that happens, the kidney may have irreversible damage.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
AIN may be caused by:
# allergic reaction to certain medicines. Examples include penicillin, cephalosporins, sulfa medicines, ibuprofen, thiazide, phenytoin, and cimetidine. A person who is exposed over and over to the medicine that caused the AIN has a higher risk of infection.
# autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjogren syndrome
# infection, such as pyelonephritis or infection of the kidney, group A streptococcal infection, diphtheria, and mononucleosis
Sometimes the cause is unknown.
Acute interstitial nephritis is also called AIN. AIN is a condition in which there is damage to the tissue around the filtering unit of the kidney. This can result in a sudden decline in the kidney function.
What is going on in the body?
In AIN, different types of white blood cells invade the filtering system of the kidney. This causes it to swell. The rise in white blood cells is most often a result of an allergic reaction to a medicine. But it may also be caused by some infections. Most people who have AIN recover completely. But sometimes, scarring results. If that happens, the kidney may have irreversible damage.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
AIN may be caused by:
# allergic reaction to certain medicines. Examples include penicillin, cephalosporins, sulfa medicines, ibuprofen, thiazide, phenytoin, and cimetidine. A person who is exposed over and over to the medicine that caused the AIN has a higher risk of infection.
# autoimmune disorders, such as systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjogren syndrome
# infection, such as pyelonephritis or infection of the kidney, group A streptococcal infection, diphtheria, and mononucleosis
Sometimes the cause is unknown.
Acute Epididymitis
Epididymitis, Epididymo-Orchitis, Acute Epididymitis
Epididymitis is an infection of the epididymis. The epididymis is a soft, coiled tubular structure on the back of the testicle.
What is going on in the body?
Infections generally spread to the epididymis from the bladder or the urethra. The urethra is the tube that allows urine to pass from the bladder to the outside of the body. In young children or older men, bacteria that cause urinary tract infections are often the cause. Sexually transmitted diseases are more likely to be the cause in sexually active young men.
Infection in the epididymis causes severe pain and swelling. The infection may spread to the testicle. When both structures are inflamed, the condition is known as epididymo-orchitis. It is rare that an infection will occur in the testicle alone. The bacteria will usually infect the epididymis first.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
Risk factors for epididymitis are the same as for infections of the urethra or bladder. These two conditions create an increased risk for epididymitis. Infections of the urethra are often sexually transmitted. These infections may be avoided by not having sex or using condoms during sex. Bladder infections are more common in those with inherited kidney and bladder problems. Bladder infections are also more common in those with enlarged prostate glands. Persons who need to use urinary catheters are at a higher risk for epididymitis. Urinary catheters are urine drainage tubes placed through the penis into the bladder.
Epididymitis is an infection of the epididymis. The epididymis is a soft, coiled tubular structure on the back of the testicle.
What is going on in the body?
Infections generally spread to the epididymis from the bladder or the urethra. The urethra is the tube that allows urine to pass from the bladder to the outside of the body. In young children or older men, bacteria that cause urinary tract infections are often the cause. Sexually transmitted diseases are more likely to be the cause in sexually active young men.
Infection in the epididymis causes severe pain and swelling. The infection may spread to the testicle. When both structures are inflamed, the condition is known as epididymo-orchitis. It is rare that an infection will occur in the testicle alone. The bacteria will usually infect the epididymis first.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
Risk factors for epididymitis are the same as for infections of the urethra or bladder. These two conditions create an increased risk for epididymitis. Infections of the urethra are often sexually transmitted. These infections may be avoided by not having sex or using condoms during sex. Bladder infections are more common in those with inherited kidney and bladder problems. Bladder infections are also more common in those with enlarged prostate glands. Persons who need to use urinary catheters are at a higher risk for epididymitis. Urinary catheters are urine drainage tubes placed through the penis into the bladder.
Acute Bronchitis
Acute Bronchitis, Inflammation of the Bronchi, Infection of the Bronchi
Acute bronchitis is inflammation, or swelling, of one or more bronchi. Bronchi are the branches of the main windpipe that carry oxygen into the lungs.
What is going on in the body?
Acute bronchitis is often caused by an infection from virus or bacteria. The infection irritates the lining of the air passages called bronchi. This causes the symptoms of bronchitis.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
The most common cause of acute bronchitis is a viral infection such as the flu. Sometimes bacteria can cause this disease as well. Breathing air that contains irritants, such as chemical fumes, acid fumes, dust or smoke, increases the risk of the disease
Acute bronchitis is inflammation, or swelling, of one or more bronchi. Bronchi are the branches of the main windpipe that carry oxygen into the lungs.
What is going on in the body?
Acute bronchitis is often caused by an infection from virus or bacteria. The infection irritates the lining of the air passages called bronchi. This causes the symptoms of bronchitis.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
The most common cause of acute bronchitis is a viral infection such as the flu. Sometimes bacteria can cause this disease as well. Breathing air that contains irritants, such as chemical fumes, acid fumes, dust or smoke, increases the risk of the disease
Tonsillitis
Acute Tonsillitis, Subacute Tonsillitis, Chronic Tonsillitis, Tonsillitis
Tonsillitis is an inflammation or infection of the tonsils.
What is going on in the body?
The body has two sets, or pairs, of tonsils. The palatine tonsils can be seen at the back of the throat. The lingual tonsils are at the back of the tongue and cannot be seen by looking in the mouth. Tonsillitis usually means the inflammation or infection of the palatine tonsils. But sometimes the infection can involve the lingual tonsils and lymph nodes in the back of the throat.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Common causes of acute tonsillitis may include:
# bacteria, such as streptoccal or hemophilus bacteria
# viruses such as adenovirus or Epstein-Barr virus, which also causes mononucleosis
# diphtheria, a serious disease that produces a false membrane in the throat. Diphtheria can be prevented by the DPT vaccine.
Subacute tonsillitis is most commonly caused by actinomyces, a normal mouth bacterium that can cause infection.
In chronic tonsillitis, there is a long-standing infection that is almost always bacterial.
Tonsillitis is an inflammation or infection of the tonsils.
What is going on in the body?
The body has two sets, or pairs, of tonsils. The palatine tonsils can be seen at the back of the throat. The lingual tonsils are at the back of the tongue and cannot be seen by looking in the mouth. Tonsillitis usually means the inflammation or infection of the palatine tonsils. But sometimes the infection can involve the lingual tonsils and lymph nodes in the back of the throat.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Common causes of acute tonsillitis may include:
# bacteria, such as streptoccal or hemophilus bacteria
# viruses such as adenovirus or Epstein-Barr virus, which also causes mononucleosis
# diphtheria, a serious disease that produces a false membrane in the throat. Diphtheria can be prevented by the DPT vaccine.
Subacute tonsillitis is most commonly caused by actinomyces, a normal mouth bacterium that can cause infection.
In chronic tonsillitis, there is a long-standing infection that is almost always bacterial.
Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome, ARDS, Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Adult respiratory distress syndrome, which is also called ARDS, is a breakdown in the function of the lungs that comes on suddenly. With this condition, there is severe inflammation in the lungs. This inflammation reduces the lungs' ability to take up oxygen. It may cause lung or respiratory failure. Although called "adult," ARDS can also occur in children.
What is going on in the body?
ARDS is usually brought on by some other serious condition in the body, such as trauma or infection, that directly or indirectly injures the lung. When a person has ARDS, the lungs and tiny blood vessels around the lungs become inflamed and swollen. This inflammation interferes with the lungs' ability to function properly. The lungs have a hard time getting oxygen into the bloodstream and removing carbon dioxide from the blood. As inflammation increases, fluid can leak from the blood vessels into the lungs. As fluid builds up and inflammation increases, the lungs become stiff and may completely fail to work. .
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
More than 30 percent of people who have sepsis, which is a life-threatening infection of the bloodstream, will develop ARDS. Some of the other causes of ARDS are:
# blood transfusions of large amounts of blood
# burns
# drug overdose
# infection of the lungs, such as bacterial or viral pneumonia
# inhaling large amounts of smoke
# inhaling toxic fumes, such as those from chlorine or ammonia
# inhaling the contents of the stomach, known as aspiration pneumonia
# near drowning
# serious inflammation in other parts of the body, such as acute pancreatitis
# prolonged or severe shock
# surgery, such as cardiopulmonary bypass
# severe trauma to other parts of the body
# severe trauma to the lungs, such as from a crush injury to the chest
Adult respiratory distress syndrome, which is also called ARDS, is a breakdown in the function of the lungs that comes on suddenly. With this condition, there is severe inflammation in the lungs. This inflammation reduces the lungs' ability to take up oxygen. It may cause lung or respiratory failure. Although called "adult," ARDS can also occur in children.
What is going on in the body?
ARDS is usually brought on by some other serious condition in the body, such as trauma or infection, that directly or indirectly injures the lung. When a person has ARDS, the lungs and tiny blood vessels around the lungs become inflamed and swollen. This inflammation interferes with the lungs' ability to function properly. The lungs have a hard time getting oxygen into the bloodstream and removing carbon dioxide from the blood. As inflammation increases, fluid can leak from the blood vessels into the lungs. As fluid builds up and inflammation increases, the lungs become stiff and may completely fail to work. .
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
More than 30 percent of people who have sepsis, which is a life-threatening infection of the bloodstream, will develop ARDS. Some of the other causes of ARDS are:
# blood transfusions of large amounts of blood
# burns
# drug overdose
# infection of the lungs, such as bacterial or viral pneumonia
# inhaling large amounts of smoke
# inhaling toxic fumes, such as those from chlorine or ammonia
# inhaling the contents of the stomach, known as aspiration pneumonia
# near drowning
# serious inflammation in other parts of the body, such as acute pancreatitis
# prolonged or severe shock
# surgery, such as cardiopulmonary bypass
# severe trauma to other parts of the body
# severe trauma to the lungs, such as from a crush injury to the chest
Renal Failure
Acute Renal Insufficiency, Renal Failure
Acute renal failure occurs when the filtering function of the kidneys changes suddenly. The kidneys are not able to maintain healthy body function.
What is going on in the body?
The kidneys filter the blood in the body and produce urine. They clear the body of many drugs and toxins. They also produce hormones and control blood pressure. The blood flow to each kidney is supplied by a large artery. Blood flow to the kidneys is crucial both for kidney health and to allow the kidneys to perform their functions of cleaning and maintaining the blood. Anything that leads to a sudden drop in blood flow to the kidneys can cause acute renal failure. When this happens, the regular functions of the kidneys can be altered or destroyed.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
The following can lead to acute renal failure:
# a blockage of urine flow out of the kidneys and into the bladder
# exposure to certain drugs
# exposure to toxic substances
# significant loss of blood or sudden drop in blood flow to the kidneys
Kidneys that have preexisting disease or damage are at higher risk for acute renal failure
Acute renal failure occurs when the filtering function of the kidneys changes suddenly. The kidneys are not able to maintain healthy body function.
What is going on in the body?
The kidneys filter the blood in the body and produce urine. They clear the body of many drugs and toxins. They also produce hormones and control blood pressure. The blood flow to each kidney is supplied by a large artery. Blood flow to the kidneys is crucial both for kidney health and to allow the kidneys to perform their functions of cleaning and maintaining the blood. Anything that leads to a sudden drop in blood flow to the kidneys can cause acute renal failure. When this happens, the regular functions of the kidneys can be altered or destroyed.
What are the causes and risks of the disease?
The following can lead to acute renal failure:
# a blockage of urine flow out of the kidneys and into the bladder
# exposure to certain drugs
# exposure to toxic substances
# significant loss of blood or sudden drop in blood flow to the kidneys
Kidneys that have preexisting disease or damage are at higher risk for acute renal failure
Poliomyelitis
Acute Paralytic Poliomyelitis OR APP, Polio, Type 1 Poliovirus, Paralytic Poliomyelitis, Nonparalytic Poliomyelitis, Infantile Paralysis, Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis, or polio, is a virus that causes a mild, flu-like illness in some people but in others leads to nerve damage and paralysis. A vaccine to prevent polio was developed in the 1950s and since then the infection has been eliminated from the US and most of Europe. The virus reproduces in the digestive system and spreads through the blood to the rest of the body. The virus is spread to others through infected feces or by airborne particles.
What is going on in the body?
During an attack of polio, nerve cells in the spinal cord are damaged or destroyed. These nerve cells transmit nerve impulses to the muscles and cause them to move. Without these functioning nerve cells, the body cannot move. Some of these nerve cells survive, however, and they can send out new nerve connections. In these cases, persons can regain much of their muscle use.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Polio is caused by the poliovirus. In countries where people are not routinely vaccinated against the disease, polio can be spread through infected feces or through airborne particles.
Poliomyelitis, or polio, is a virus that causes a mild, flu-like illness in some people but in others leads to nerve damage and paralysis. A vaccine to prevent polio was developed in the 1950s and since then the infection has been eliminated from the US and most of Europe. The virus reproduces in the digestive system and spreads through the blood to the rest of the body. The virus is spread to others through infected feces or by airborne particles.
What is going on in the body?
During an attack of polio, nerve cells in the spinal cord are damaged or destroyed. These nerve cells transmit nerve impulses to the muscles and cause them to move. Without these functioning nerve cells, the body cannot move. Some of these nerve cells survive, however, and they can send out new nerve connections. In these cases, persons can regain much of their muscle use.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Polio is caused by the poliovirus. In countries where people are not routinely vaccinated against the disease, polio can be spread through infected feces or through airborne particles.
Panic Disorder
Panic Attacks, Acute Panic Attacks, Panic Disorder
A panic disorder is characterized by repeated panic attacks, or episodes of intense fear that strike without warning.
What is going on in the body?
The body has a natural "fight or flight" response to danger. When a person perceives some threat or danger, the autonomic nervous system is stimulated. This helps a person escape from danger. During a panic attack, the body's automatic nervous system is triggered for no apparent reason.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
While the exact cause of panic disorder is unknown, genetics and social factors may play a part. Caffeine, cocaine, and alcohol also may cause the disorder. Panic attacks can be triggered by severe or prolonged stress. This disorder occurs more often in women than men.
A panic disorder is characterized by repeated panic attacks, or episodes of intense fear that strike without warning.
What is going on in the body?
The body has a natural "fight or flight" response to danger. When a person perceives some threat or danger, the autonomic nervous system is stimulated. This helps a person escape from danger. During a panic attack, the body's automatic nervous system is triggered for no apparent reason.
What are the causes and risks of the condition?
While the exact cause of panic disorder is unknown, genetics and social factors may play a part. Caffeine, cocaine, and alcohol also may cause the disorder. Panic attacks can be triggered by severe or prolonged stress. This disorder occurs more often in women than men.
Swimmer's Ear
Acute Otitis Externa, External Canal Infection, Swimmer's Ear
Swimmer's ear is an inflammation or infection of the tissues of the outer ear and the external ear canal. The ear canal is the narrow tube that extends from the outer ear to the eardrum.
What is going on in the body?
Swimmer's ear is an inflammation or infection of the outer ear and the external canal. The ear canal contains glands that produce oil, sweat, and ear wax. Ear wax helps maintain an acidic environment in the ear canal.
If the ear canal loses its acidity, bacteria can grow more easily. Some people, such as individuals with diabetes, have a less acid environment. A wet environment in the ear canal also makes it a breeding ground for bacteria. Water that is left in the ear after swimming or bathing can promote infection.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Conditions that can lead to swimmer's ear include:
# benign ear growths in the ear canal that do not allow water to drain out effectively
# chronic otitis externa, or chronic irritation of the ear canal
# dermatitis due to allergic reactions to hair spray, dyes, or other chemicals
# dermatitis due to conditions such as psoriasis and eczema
# lower levels of acidity in the ear wax, such as in people with diabetes
# using cotton-tipped swabs, which may injure the ear canal or pack the wax tightly
# very narrow openings into the ear canal, such as in people with Down syndrome
# water left in the ear after bathing or swimming, which is why it is also called swimmer's ear
Most episodes of swimmer's ear are caused by bacteria. Fungal infections may also occur in the ear canal, although they are less painful. These often do not respond as quickly to antibiotics and may require specific antifungal medicines.
Swimmer's ear is an inflammation or infection of the tissues of the outer ear and the external ear canal. The ear canal is the narrow tube that extends from the outer ear to the eardrum.
What is going on in the body?
Swimmer's ear is an inflammation or infection of the outer ear and the external canal. The ear canal contains glands that produce oil, sweat, and ear wax. Ear wax helps maintain an acidic environment in the ear canal.
If the ear canal loses its acidity, bacteria can grow more easily. Some people, such as individuals with diabetes, have a less acid environment. A wet environment in the ear canal also makes it a breeding ground for bacteria. Water that is left in the ear after swimming or bathing can promote infection.
What are the causes and risks of the infection?
Conditions that can lead to swimmer's ear include:
# benign ear growths in the ear canal that do not allow water to drain out effectively
# chronic otitis externa, or chronic irritation of the ear canal
# dermatitis due to allergic reactions to hair spray, dyes, or other chemicals
# dermatitis due to conditions such as psoriasis and eczema
# lower levels of acidity in the ear wax, such as in people with diabetes
# using cotton-tipped swabs, which may injure the ear canal or pack the wax tightly
# very narrow openings into the ear canal, such as in people with Down syndrome
# water left in the ear after bathing or swimming, which is why it is also called swimmer's ear
Most episodes of swimmer's ear are caused by bacteria. Fungal infections may also occur in the ear canal, although they are less painful. These often do not respond as quickly to antibiotics and may require specific antifungal medicines.
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